About the issue outlined above, this study analyses 2 Thessalonians 2:15, which forms part of Paul’s epistle. The Catholic Church understands this verse as a biblical foundation for the Apostles’ exhortation to the faithful to hold firmly to the inherited teachings they received both orally and in written form (Konferensi Wali Gereja Indonesia 2011:10). Protestant churches, on the other hand, affirm that Scripture is the inspired Word of God and the normative authority for Christian faith and practice. While many evangelical traditions emphasise divine inspiration operating through individual biblical authors, contemporary Protestant biblical scholarship also recognises that several biblical books emerged through complex processes of composition, transmission and redaction involving communities of faith. Nevertheless, these literary processes do not diminish Scripture’s theological authority, which remains grounded in divine inspiration rather than ecclesiastical tradition (Barton & Muddiman 2001; McGrath 2012; Soesilo 2014).

The Greek text of 2 Thessalonians 2:15 exhorts believers to ‘stand firm and hold to the traditions [paradoseis] which you were taught, whether by word or by letter’. In earlier Arabic translations associated with Eastern Christian communities, this term is typically rendered as al-taqālīd [traditions]. The Smith–Van Dyck translation, however, uses the term al-taʿālīm [teachings] (see Table 1). This lexical choice significantly alters the semantic emphasis of the verse. While the term taqlīd implies inherited tradition or customary practice, the term taʿlīm refers to instruction or doctrinal teaching intended to communicate knowledge. Arabic lexical sources confirm that taʿlīm denotes ‘structured teaching designed to convey authoritative knowledge’ (Al-Yasū’I 2015:526).

From a translation perspective, this shift may be understood as a form of particularisation, in which a broader term is rendered using a more specific expression (Molina & Albir 2002). Rather than emphasising tradition as a continuing ecclesiastical authority, the translation foregrounds doctrinal instruction associated with apostolic teaching.

Other structural features of the translation also demonstrate a tendency towards formal equivalence. For example, the phrase bi al-kalām [by word] reflects the Greek expression dia logou without adding interpretive elements present in other Arabic translations. Such choices indicate an effort to preserve the structure of the source text while maintaining linguistic clarity in Arabic.

Taken together, these translation decisions should not be understood as implying that Protestant Bible translations generally avoid the term ‘tradition’. On the contrary, many major Protestant translations – including the King James Version (KJV), English Standard Version (ESV), New American Standard Bible (NASB), New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) and New International Version (NIV) – translate paradoseis in 2 Thessalonians 2:15 as ‘traditions’. From a lexical perspective, paradosis ordinarily denotes something handed over or transmitted and, in Pauline usage, often refers to apostolic instruction received from Christ and entrusted to the churches (cf. 1 Cor 11:2, 23). Consequently, the issue is not the lexical meaning of the word itself, but the theological significance attributed to that tradition.

The explanation above demonstrates that the lexical distinction found in the Smith–Van Dyck Bible is not representative of Protestant Bible translations generally. Instead, it raises the question of why this rendering emerged within the historical setting of the 19th century Protestant missions. It should first be recognised that the Greek term paradosis does not carry an inherently negative connotation in Pauline theology. Lexically, it denotes ‘that which is handed over’ or ‘tradition’ and, in Paul’s letters, commonly refers to the apostolic teaching received from Christ and faithfully transmitted to the churches. This understanding is reinforced by Paul’s use of the cognate verbs paralambanō [to receive] and paradidōmi [to hand over], particularly in 1 Corinthians 11:2 and 11:23, where the apostle presents himself as receiving the tradition from the Lord and transmitting it unchanged to the Christian community. As several Pauline scholars have observed, paradosis in these contexts refers to the authoritative apostolic tradition that constitutes the foundation of Christian faith rather than to later ecclesiastical customs or practices (Dunn 1998; Green 2000; Thiselton 2000).

Accordingly, the theological issue surrounding 2 Thessalonians 2:15 does not concern the legitimacy of apostolic tradition itself, because both Protestant and Catholic traditions acknowledge the authority of the apostolic message. Rather, the point of contention lies in how that apostolic tradition is preserved and exercised within the life of the Church. Protestant theology generally understands the apostolic tradition as normatively preserved in Scripture, whereas Catholic and Orthodox theology maintains that it is transmitted through both Scripture and Sacred Tradition under the teaching authority of the Church (Council Fathers 2017; Croy 2011; Konferensi Wali Gereja Indonesia 2011; McGrath 2012).

Against this theological background, the rendering of paradoseis as al-ta‘ālīm [teachings] in the Smith–Van Dyck Bible assumes particular historical significance. The translation should not be interpreted as representative of Protestant Bible translations in general, because many major Protestant versions – including the King James Version, English Standard Version, New American Standard Bible and New International Version – retain the rendering ‘traditions’. Rather, within the specific missionary context of the 19th century Greater Syria, the lexical preference for al-ta‘ālīm appears to reflect an interpretive strategy that directed readers’ attention to the content of apostolic instruction instead of the concept of ecclesiastical tradition. In doing so, the translation aligns with the broader Protestant hermeneutical emphasis that doctrinal authority ultimately derives from the apostolic witness preserved in Scripture.

From a linguistic perspective, the distinction between al-taqālīd and al-taʿālīm should not be understood merely as a difference in vocabulary. In contemporary and classical Arabic, al-taqālīd [التقاليد] generally denotes traditions, customs, or inherited practices transmitted across generations, while al-taʿālīm [التعاليم] refers primarily to teachings, instructions, or doctrinal content communicated by an authoritative teacher. Classical Arabic lexicons similarly derive taʿālīm from the root ʿfrom, emphasising instruction and imparted knowledge, whereas taqālīd derives from the root q-l-d, denoting something handed down, entrusted or inherited. Although both terms involve transmission, they evoke different semantic domains: taqālīd foregrounds continuity with inherited tradition, whereas taʿālīm emphasises the content of instruction and teaching. This lexical distinction becomes theologically significant within the context of the 19th century Protestant–Catholic controversy, where the authority of ecclesiastical tradition constituted a central point of debate.

The translation of paradoseis as al-taʿālīm reflects the theological orientation of the Protestant missionaries responsible for producing the Smith–Van Dyck Bible. Within Protestant theology, the doctrine of Sola Scriptura affirms Scripture as the normative authority for Christian doctrine. Accordingly, the preference for al-taʿālīm may be understood as an interpretive choice that foregrounds apostolic teaching preserved in Scripture rather than ecclesiastical tradition. This article does not suggest that al-taʿālīm and al-taqālīd are lexical opposites, nor that the Smith–Van Dyck Bible in its totality constitutes a Protestant translation. Rather, it argues that this lexical preference acquires theological significance only within the historical context of the 19th century Protestant missions.

Accordingly, this article does not argue that the Smith–Van Dyck Bible in its totality constitutes a distinctly Protestant translation. Rather, it proposes that the rendering of paradoseis in 2 Thessalonians 2:15 represents an interpretive decision whose theological significance becomes apparent when considered within the historical context of the 19th century Protestant missions in Greater Syria. The argument, therefore, concerns the theological implications of this particular translation choice rather than the overall theological character of the Smith–Van Dyck Bible.

Within Fairclough’s notion of discursive practice, translation is understood as a process of textual production and circulation through which particular theological meanings become normalised. The Smith–Van Dyck Bible was not produced in isolation but within the institutional network of the ABCFM, whose publishing, educational and missionary activities shaped the reception of biblical texts among Arabic-speaking Christians. Consequently, the rendering of paradoseis as al-taʿālīm should also be understood as part of a wider process through which Protestant interpretations of apostolic authority entered Arabic Christian discourse.

Contemporary translation studies recognise that Bible translation is an interpretive act shaped by historical and theological contexts (Molina & Albir 2002; Nida 1964). Accordingly, lexical variation may reveal broader theological orientations when interpreted within its historical setting. This perspective is particularly relevant to the Smith–Van Dyck Bible. Grafton (2015) demonstrates that the translation project emerged within the missionary programme of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), whose objective extended beyond linguistic accessibility to the promotion of Protestant theological convictions among Arabic-speaking Christians. Similarly, Erdman (1937) notes that the Arabic Bible became an important instrument in the theological encounter between Protestant missionaries and the long-established Catholic and Orthodox traditions in the Middle East. These studies suggest that lexical choices in the Smith–Van Dyck translation cannot be separated entirely from the theological environment in which the translation was produced.

Against this background, the present study does not argue that the rendering of paradoseis as al-taʿālīm is intrinsically or universally Protestant. Rather, it argues that this translation choice acquires theological significance when read within the historical context of the 19th century Protestant missions in Greater Syria. The preference for al-taʿālīm over the more literal equivalent al-taqālīd appears consistent with the broader Protestant hermeneutical emphasis that doctrinal authority rests upon apostolic teaching preserved in Scripture rather than upon ecclesiastical tradition. Accordingly, the theological significance lies not in the lexical item itself but in the interpretive framework within which the translation was produced and circulated.

This finding is also consistent with previous studies on the Smith–Van Dyck Bible, which demonstrate that translation choices frequently reflect theological orientation. Yahya et al. (2023) show how semantic adjustment in Matthew 6:12 reflects interpretive decisions beyond literal equivalence, while Rasyid et al. (2025) argue that the retention of the Johannine Comma in the Smith–Van Dyck Bible reinforces a distinctly Protestant understanding of Trinitarian doctrine. The present study extends this line of inquiry by demonstrating that similar theological considerations are also evident in the rendering of paradoseis in 2 Thessalonians 2:15.

The translation must also be understood within the broader context of missionary activity in the Middle East. Protestant missionaries entering the region in the 19th century therefore encountered well-established ecclesiastical traditions. Bible translation became one of the central strategies through which Protestant missionaries sought to introduce their theological perspective. The Smith–Van Dyck Bible played a crucial role in this process. Millions of copies were printed and distributed throughout the Arabic-speaking world during the late 19th century and early 20th century (Erdman 1937:220). As a result, the translation became one of the most influential Arabic Bibles in modern history (Torrey 1919; Leavy 1993).

The significance of the translation therefore lay not only in its lexical choices but also in the institutional mechanisms through which those choices were disseminated. Schools, missionary presses and Bible societies ensured that the Smith–Van Dyck Bible became the principal Protestant Arabic Bible across much of the Eastern Mediterranean, allowing its interpretive framework to acquire lasting influence beyond the immediate missionary context. Through this widespread distribution, Protestant missionaries promoted a model of religious authority centred on personal engagement with Scripture. This approach challenged traditional ecclesiastical structures in which biblical interpretation was mediated primarily through clergy and institutional authority.

The present findings should not be interpreted as demonstrating that the Smith–Van Dyck Bible, in its entirety, was designed to advance Protestant theology through every translation decision. Such a conclusion would require a comprehensive examination of the translation as a whole. Rather, this study argues more modestly that the rendering of paradoseis in 2 Thessalonians 2:15 constitutes an interpretive choice that is historically consistent with the theological priorities of the 19th century Protestant missionaries operating in Greater Syria. This interpretation also resonates with previous studies on the Smith–Van Dyck Bible, which have identified theological patterns in the translation of Matthew 6:12 (Yahya et al. 2023) and the retention of the Johannine Comma (Rasyid et al. 2025). Taken together, these studies suggest that theological commitments occasionally informed translation decisions, although a comprehensive evaluation of the entire translation remains a task for future research.