Original Research

Woman’s body: Rereading Hosea 2 from a feminist perspective and its contribution to sexual violation in Maluku

Juliana A. Tuasela, Margaretha M.A. Apituley, Monike Hukubun

Received: 04 June 2025; Accepted: 05 Aug. 2025; Published: 11 Sept. 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

The politicisation of the woman’s body is a critical issue both in biblical times and today. The objectification of women’s bodies is intensifying in both public and private spheres. Within patriarchal constructs, the woman’s body is negatively politicised as minor, silent, objectified, instrumental and sinful. Metaphorically, Hosea 2 portrays women’s bodies as political entities, sites of andocentrism that are accused, humiliated and ultimately rehabilitated. Ironically, the gender differentiation in the text – represented by God’s masculinity and Israel’s feminisation – contributes to the distortion of women’s rights. The main objective of this study is to reread Hosea 2 by deconstructing masculinist claims that objectify women’s bodies and reimagining these bodies in the context of sexual violation in Maluku. Employing a qualitative approach, this article explores feminist interpretations alongside Walter Brueggemann’s concept of prophetic imagination in rereading Hosea 2. Based on Brueggemann’s framework, the implications of an inclusive reading involve formulating new visions and advocacy for women’s bodies through alternative consciousness, prophetic criticism and prophetic energising. Therefore, rereading the text from feminist perspectives is essential to affirm, liberate, celebrate and honour women’s bodies in the contemporary context of Maluku.

Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: This study demonstrates the intersections between feminist studies and biblical studies. Using a feminist hermeneutic lens, it presents a new understanding of the woman’s body. This research is interdisciplinary, as the authors apply the feminist lens to interpret an Old Testament narrative. It aims to enhance feminist-theological discourse in the local context, specifically in Maluku.

Keywords: Hosea; woman’s body; politicisation; Walter Brueggemann; sexual violation; Maluku.

Introduction

The study’s objective was to reinterpret Hosea 2 by deconstructing and reimagining the woman’s body in the context of sexual violence in Maluku. The authors were interested in this issue for two reasons: (1) Hosea 2 presents a vulgar metaphor for the politicisation of women’s bodies. A negative politicisation of women’s bodies occurs within a patriarchal framework. The text creatively portrays women’s bodies as political entities to describe the relationship between God and humanity (Kelle 2005). Hosea 2 portrays the woman’s body as a site of exploitation through androcentrism, marked by accusations, public humiliation and patriarchal control. (2) Contextually, the objectification of women’s bodies is rampant in both public and private spheres. Women’s bodies become central sites of discrimination and sexual violence perpetrated by patriarchal groups. Sexual violence against women is an urgent issue that affects all cultures – locally, nationally, globally and transnationally (Randa et al. 2023). In Maluku, Indonesia, this problem has shown a concerning trend of increasing prevalence each year. The number and forms of violence are rising annually, with the impact of sexual violence becoming increasingly severe for victims (Tuasela, Nenkeula & Pieter 2024; Randa & McGarry 2023). Specifically, in the context of Maluku, records indicate that from 2022 to 2023, cases of sexual violence against women reached 525.

This issue has been a lively topic of discourse among scholars with various emphases. Alice A. Keefe and Yvonne Sherwood are two feminist theologians who study the politicisation of women’s bodies in the Book of Hosea using contrasting approaches. In her book, Woman’s Body and Social Body in Hosea, Keefe applies a socio-literary approach to explore women’s bodies as constructs of social identity (2001). Meanwhile, Sherwood examines the objectification of women’s bodies within the context of marriage through an elaborate discourse that intertwines biblical theology and philosophy. She focuses on the relationship between prostitution and prophecy in the Book of Hosea (1996). Additionally, recent research by Chang, Wang and Tian (2022) emphasises the transformation of women’s bodies through a discourse criticism approach, comparing biblical studies in their ancient context with Women’s Bible studies in a modern context. Megan Clay, employing a feminist theological approach, proposes a connection between visual art and body theology as a medium for women’s bodies to speak and communicate (2015).

Carolyn Sharp also reviews the interrogation of the Violent God in Hosea through an intensive discourse with Brueggemann, Keefe and Ben Zvi. By appreciating the multivocality in Brueggemann’s interpretation of the Book of Hosea, Sharp affirms that God is revealing Himself through the rhetorical disjunction between the brutal God depicted in most of Hosea and the nurturing deity in Hosea 14. From a postcolonial perspective, Sharp builds on Keefe’s economically motivated analysis to explore the polemic of women’s exploitation in Hosea by introducing the concepts of hybridity and mimicry. Considering Ben Zvi’s argument that the Persian-period literati would have been empowered by Hosea’s utopian rhetoric, Sharp encourages a reinterpretation of the metaphor of the politicisation of the woman’s body as an adulterous woman, suggesting it is ironically a means to shame men (Sharp 2008).

This study presents two key novelties: (1) it explores and deconstructs Hosea 2 through the lens of feminist reading, focusing on the politicisation of a woman’s body; and (2) it reconstructs the text to offer a new imaginative perspective on the woman’s body in the context of sexual violence, drawing on Walter Brueggemann’s prophetic imagination approach. This approach portrays the woman’s body as a subject worthy of glorification, honour and celebration. The implications of this reading advocate for the authorisation of the woman’s body in today’s era.

Results and discussion

Reading a woman’s body

The authors commence the study by conceptualising how to read a woman’s body. This section provides a perspective for exploring the objectification of the female body in Hosea 2. The woman’s body is a construct that extends beyond biological boundaries. ‘The woman’s body itself is a constantly evolving term, a process of becoming, a construction that does not have a beginning or an endpoint’ (Butler 2006). Reading the woman’s body is framed by the following questions: How should the woman’s body be interpreted? Who interprets the woman’s body? Whose voice holds authority in determining the nature of a woman?

From the perspective of classical feminists (first and second waves), the genderisation of women is constructed within a patriarchal society (Clack 2023). Scholars who support this principle include Germaine Greer (1991), Genevieve Lloyd (1984) and Sherry Ortner (1972). The genderisation of women is based on differences in sex and gender. According to Greer, gender differentiation distorts women’s identity and creates a feminist ‘mask’ (1991). Genevieve Lloyd argues that the gender categories in the Western philosophical tradition define masculinity as associated with reason and spirituality, while Ortner states that femininity is characterised by the physical, emotional and non-spiritual (1984).

The contemporary feminist idea is supported by Lisa Isherwood (1999), Val Plumwood (1993) and Judith Butler (2006, 2014). Butler, a 21st-century gender theorist, views the woman’s body with optimism, embodying the spirit and enthusiasm of liberation. She conceptualises the woman’s body as a fluid identity that rejects the imposition of stereotypes and limitations based on rigid ontological claims (2014:45).

Butler counters and liberates women from conventional constructions of gender identity. Ellen T. Armour (1999) affirms Butler’s idea that a woman’s identity must be built on her independence in self-perception. Women possess emotion, voice, desire and choice in how they view and interpret themselves. The subjectivity of a woman’s body should not be controlled by cultural constructs or external opinions. Women gain new power when they dare to speak up and question socio-cultural ontological claims about themselves. This principle is part of the revolutionary feminist movement that creates space for a woman’s voice, experience and ability to reflect critically. Michèle Le Doeuff (2003) asserts that when women question themselves, they will rediscover their own dignity.

From a feminist perspective, Hosea 2 is seen as having usurped women’s voices and perspectives. The text employs metaphoric language that objectifies and degrades women. The Book of Hosea is considered highly patriarchal, created by men and for men. Most of the images and metaphors are predominantly male. Hosea 2 uses misogynistic metaphors, particularly marriage and sexuality, to describe the relationship between God and Israel. The text portrays the masculinisation of God in a positive light (represented by the prophet Hosea) and the feminisation of Gomer, the adulterous woman, in a negative sense. Allegorically, Hosea 2 depicts the woman’s body as politicised and objectified.

Rereading of the woman’s body in Hosea 2

The authors will analyse the portrayal of women’s bodies in Hosea 2 through the lens of women’s voices and experiences. This reading aims to liberate women’s bodies from the objectification and victimisation imposed by patriarchal culture. According to T. Drorah Setel, the characteristics of objectification, particularly in the context of women’s pornography, are defined as follows (1998):

• Women’s sexuality is depicted negatively in relation to positive and neutral standards of masculinity.
• Women are degraded and humiliated in public.
• Women’s sexuality is represented as an object of male ownership and control, including the portrayal of women as analogies for nature in general and land in particular, especially in relation to the metaphor of conquest and domination.

Basically, Hosea 2 is considered to have usurped the voice and perspective of a woman. The metaphorical language is seen as objectifying and degrading to a woman’s body. This text exemplifies the repetitive style characteristic of Hosea’s obsession, where scenarios recur with aesthetic or ethical revisions that vary in scale. The pattern of these repetitive changes is as follows: firstly, there is a fantasy of gender displacement, marked by a shift between male and female personas. By the end of the chapter, the mention of children and Jezreel suddenly takes on a feminine aspect. Jezreel is etymologically linked to the divine seed, symbolising God’s insemination of the earth as an act of submission. Secondly, the text features repetitive fantasies that shift thematically, moving from themes of destruction and sexual exposure (vs. 1–3) to visions of reconciliation or restoration (vs. 4–15) (Yee 1992).

Woman as a victim of sexual abuse

Hosea 2 models and justifies sexual violence against women in a troubling manner. The metaphor depicts women as victims of violence, with Yahweh as the perpetrator. The authors reference Mary Joan Winn Leith’s idea (1989:96), which describes the sexual violation of women in three movements: firstly, the accusation against a woman’s body; secondly, the punishment of a woman’s body; and thirdly, the restoration of a woman’s body. The metaphor of femininity is constructed throughout these movements (1989:96). Specifically, these three movements form a rite of passage. In the first movement, the accusation is directed at the adulterous woman (the metaphor for Israel), who is stripped of her identity. Women are separated and deprived of their rights. In the second movement, the punishment involves women being exiled to the wilderness. In the third movement, restoration occurs, as Hosea describes the reconciliation between Yahweh and Israel as a new creation, a new covenant and a wedding celebration where God and the bride return to the now-fertile inheritance (1989:96–97).

First movement: Accusation of the woman’s body

The beginning of Hosea 2 directs its accusation at the adulterous woman, a metaphor for Israel. The accusation is as follows: firstly, fornication. The term commonly used to refer to ‘fornication’ in Hosea is זְנוּנִים֙ [zenunim], derived from the verb זנָה [zanah], which is translated as ‘promiscuity’ (sexual intercourse with anyone or with different people) and ‘promiscuous’ (a person who engages in promiscuity) (Andersen & Freedman 1980:137). The concept of ‘fornication’ is significant in Hosea, as indicated by the frequency of its use in the Scriptures, specifically in this book. Variations of the verb form זנָה [zanah] (acting like a prostitute) appear 84 times in the entire holy book, with Hosea using it 20 times (Setel 1998:96). Fornication serves as a major metaphor for national sin and, in legal terms, characterises acts of betrayal, apostasy and disloyalty to Yahweh. This term also extends its meaning to encompass social, economic and political violations. In contrast to other Old Testament books, the perpetrator of the sexual offence in Hosea 2 is portrayed as a woman. Hosea 2 lists women as the dangerous and seductive ‘other’, depicting them as metaphorical vehicles for the introduction of chaos (Exum 1993:192). Israel is characterised as a harlot because its adulterous behaviour actively participates in Canaanite idolatrous rites. The lovers addressed to Yahweh’s wife are interpreted as Israel’s foreign allies and trading partners. This sexual transgression disrupts a specific social order. Claudia Camp states that, in the world of biblical literature, ‘improper sexual behaviour causes and represents social disorder’ (1985:120).

Secondly, another negative view of women is their passive attitude and economic dependence on their lovers. The Israelites viewed a woman’s body as אִשְׁתִּ֔י זְנוּנִ֖ים [isti zenunim], whose desire for her lover was to supply grain, wine and oil (Hs 2:5b, 7b). In the fertility cult, women committed a theological violation by actively depending on the fertility power of the god of nature and being subject to his ritual manipulation, rather than submitting to Yahweh. This also implies a denial of women’s role in providing food and clothing. In the 8th century BC, grain, wine and oil were considered ‘choice commodities’ (Hopkins 1983:196) in the international trade economy. During Hosea’s time, subsistence farmers typically performed worship ceremonies to appease minor gods and local powers to ensure the fertility of their fields and livestock, as well as to protect themselves from disasters and famine. When Hosea stated that Israel became an זְנוּנִ֖ים אִשְׁתִּ֔י [isti zenunim] – an adulterous woman or wife – he was not referring to small landless farmers or the leaders of bet ‘abot. Instead, he was addressing the elite (male) monarchical class, a monarchy that deified Baal.

Second movement: Punishment of the woman’s body

The punishment is recorded in verse 4b, which becomes an ultimatum in verse 5: (Krungen 1992)

Do not let me strip her and strip her naked like the day she was born. I will make her like a desert, turn her into a barren land and let her die of thirst. (n.p.)

Hosea 2 presents a picture of double punishment for adulterous women: firstly, the exposure of their nakedness and secondly, the punishment of women likened to a desert and barren land.

First, exposure of a woman’s nakedness

Hosea 2 presents the act of stripping in two interpretations: a literary meaning and a symbolic/metaphorical meaning. Krunger (1992) suggests that the exposure of women’s nakedness serves a literary purpose, functioning as punishment for adulterous women through acts of public humiliation. This perspective contrasts with the views of Kuhl (1934) and Gordon (1936), who interpret stripping (Hs 2:4b) as a symbolic affirmation of the divorce formula (2:4a). Krunger employs a comparative study of Old Testament traditions alongside Ancient Near Eastern customs to support his argument. He identifies a tension between the literary and symbolic meanings of forced undressing. In the literary sense, this act is seen as punishment for adulterous women, characterised by public humiliation. Conversely, in the symbolic sense, it is viewed as a confirmation of the divorce formula. To further elucidate this debate, Krunger rationalises his argument as follows:

Firstly, the literary meaning of forced undressing has an advantage because of its immense popularity, with its significance varying across the Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern traditions. This diversity is evident in the numerous Ancient Near Eastern manuscripts. In Hittite law (par 171), the stripping of a boy’s robe by his mother symbolises the severance of family ties (Haase 1963:89). In the Ugaritic text (RS 17.159; see Rummel 1976:7), undressing signifies the heir’s rejection of the right to the throne. A similar gesture appears in Ezekiel 26:16, where the princes symbolically place their garments on the throne to signify abdication. The legal status of the wife is reflected in Old Testament terminology (Yaron 1957), which includes: the husband must send her out of the house (Dt 24:3); a certificate of divorce, סֵ֣פֶר כְּרִית֤וּת (Isa. 50:1; Jr 3:8) (Neufeld 1944:180); and the term וּגְרוּשָׁה֙ for a divorced woman (Lv 21:14), where the root word means ‘to send off’, ‘to banish’, and ‘to drive out’.

Secondly, the symbolic meaning of forced undressing has its weaknesses. The assumption is that if this action symbolically confirms the legal formulation of the covenant, a critical question arises: why does Hosea 2 record the continuation of the marriage relationship, where the husband still takes various disciplinary actions to win his wife back (vv. 7–8)? This idea must be viewed through the lens of divorce law regulation. According to the regulations, the provisions for divorce must go through three stages (Akmger 1992:11):

1. The uttering of the divorce formula.

2. The symbolic punishment (nakedness).

3. The wife’s departure from the husband’s legal sphere of responsibility (her ascent to the palace).

Uniquely, the regulation above shows no indication of the last symbolic stage in Hosea. It is recorded in the book of Hosea that she is still in the husband’s ‘house’, because Yahweh actively took disciplinary action to bring her back from her waywardness (Akmger 1992:14).

Based on the description above, Krunger agrees with the literary meaning of the act of stripping women in Hosea 2:5a (Krunger 1992). The indicator word זָֽנְתָה֙ used in Hosea 2:5a is interpreted as showing shame (Andersen & Freedman 1980:225). Humiliation is a punishment and fate for women who violate the institution of marriage. Punishments for adulterous women exist in various traditions of the Ancient Near Eastern and the Old Testament. In the Ancient Near Eastern manuscript, Germania 19/3 records, ‘he shaved his wife’s hair, stripped her naked before her relatives, drove her out of her house and flogged her throughout the village’ (Mattingly 1948:116). Other punishments, an adulterous wife who was not executed, could be shaved, mutilated and enslaved (Greengus 1969:39), or her husband could pardon her, but her accomplice had to be treated accordingly (Yaron 1957). The Sumerian text (IM 28051) degrading punishment by ‘shaving off (his private parts); they pierced his nose with arrows (and) led him around the city….’ (Greengus 1966 35).

In the Old Testament, the marriage metaphor of Ezekiel 16 and 23 deals in detail with the punishment of an adulterer (Ez 16:38; 23:45). One of these is: they will strip your clothes off (נֹֽאֲפ֔וֹת – the same word is used in Hs 2:5), take away your beautiful ornaments and leave you naked and exposed (Ez 16:39). In Isaiah 47:2–3, Babylon is pictured as a prostitute, her nakedness uncovered (נֹֽאֲפ֔וֹת) as a punishment for her transgression. In Nahum 3:5, the city of Nineveh is likened to an impure woman who will be exposed [מַעְרֵ֔ךְ] because of her many acts of prostitution (3:4). In Ezekiel 16, the act of נֹאֲפ֔וֹת is mentioned first in this case of adultery (v. 37), followed by the removal [וְהִפְשִׁ֤יטוּ] (v. 39) of clothing and then stoning (v. 40) or burning to death (v. 41, see also Gn 38:24; Lv 21:9 and Jn 8:7). The punishment for the removal of the adulterer in Hosea 2:5a in the form of a public mark of shame.

Behind the polemic of meaning above, Yvone Sherwood (1996) states that the disclosure of women’s nakedness implies acts of sexual violence and rape in a vulgar way. Nakedness that is revealed and equated with the vulnerability of the baby. Stripped as on the day of birth implies a double meaning, namely revealing and erasing women’s sexuality. The image of women’s return to the nakedness of childhood reveals a vision of restoration amid threats, returning to innocence lost in the past. Restoration is based on the principle of causality. If a woman is willing to remove the signs of fornication from her breasts and face, then her husband who feels wronged will ‘strive her and make her as on the day she was born’. Nudity is in the control of masculinity to express a dual purpose, namely: to reveal and erase female sexuality. Nakedness is framed in the polarisation between the most extreme form of punishment (rape and robbery) against the most extreme form of restoration (returning to the moment of birth) (Sharwod 1996).

Second, the punishment of a woman is like a desert and barren land

Hosea 2:2 introduces another dimension of woman’s symbolism in Hosea, namely the identification of woman with the land. This text depicts punishment for acts of fornication. The harlot is a dual symbolisation of the disobedience of Israel as well as the land itself. The image of the stripping of women is analogous to the image of the fertile land turning into a desert. The promise of fertility in the womb of a woman and fertile land is eliminated and replaced with sterility, destruction and death. This meaning is indicated in two ways, namely, lexical features and socio-historical background. The key term for a harlot is נַבְלֻתָ֖הּ (Hs 2:10, 12), which is often translated ‘lewdness’. In this context, the term is interpreted as ‘shameless woman’. The root, verbal form of נַבְלֻתָ֖הּ is נַבְלֻ meaning ‘to suffer’ or ‘to wither’. This semantic relationship suggests that the meaning of ‘lewdness’ is equated with the withering or destruction of the vegetation of the land. The implication of the meaning is that the term ‘shame or nakedness’ is parallel to ‘withering or suffering’. The polyvalence of נַבְלֻתָ֖הּ resonates with the metaphorical intersection that ‘the nakedness of the woman’ is equivalent to ‘the destruction’ and/or ‘nakedness of the land’ in Hosea 2 (Olyan 1992:257).

Socio-historically, the homology between woman and land is a well-known feature of the religious imagination of agrarian societies. The fertility powers of the womb and the land are congruent hierophanies. As an agrarian society, the power of procreation is embodied in the woman’s body and the land as a hierophany. Evidenced by the Canaanite ritual site and practice is the woman’s statue, Asherim and Asherah. In the Hosea context, the woman’s body is interpreted as the mother’s body, which produces the continuity of the family across generations. A woman’s body is analogous to fertile soil, productive of food and life. Fertility, land, woman’s body and human sexuality mark ‘the center of sacred power’ (Eliade 1974:334). These symbols suggest that the sacred is rooted in the regenerative power of the cosmos. The rejection of this sacredness revealing a dark and devastated world where ‘the land mourns, dries up and withers’.

Third movement: Restoration of the woman’s body

Hosea employs the rhetorical language of liberation to foster peace and restore Israel. The tone of punishment and criticism found in God’s language is transformed into an offer of reconciliation and restoration. Hosea presents an alternative by reimagining God’s character. The God who once threatened and punished becomes a God of peace, love and restoration. The threat posed by polytheism is weighed against the practice of monotheism to Yahweh. God offers a holistic reconciliation that restores relationships between husband and wife, parents and children, as well as between humans and the universe. In love, a couple renews their marriage vows, initiating a period of cosmic peace, harmony and abundant fertility (2:18–22). Hosea proposes two alternative prophetic ideas: firstly, the concept of God’s liberation. God’s work transcends patriarchal constructs; he moves freely to encounter Israel, his wife, as the accused and insulted victim. Secondly, the prophet serves as the guardian of values such as righteousness, justice, compassion and love, capable of transforming the relationship between God and Israel, the speaker and the receiver. The prophet acts as a mediator for engagement and possesses knowledge of God. God is depicted as a God of love, willing to make peace, forgive and restore his people. Yahweh, as the husband, acknowledges the children as his own and changes their names as part of a new covenant. Jezreel now symbolises the act of sowing his mother back to the ground. Yahweh will have mercy on his sons and declare them to be his children.

The theological significance

Hosea 2 presents the politicisation of women’s bodies within a framework of power, sexuality and masculine aggression. It highlights the feminisation of Israel, which renders women’s bodies objects of gender violence. This text resembles a form of performance art that exposes themes of pornography, sadism and domestic violence. Masculine perpetrators of violence in positions of authority repeatedly exchange and abuse women’s bodies. The text is deeply focused on the function, utilisation and abuse of women’s bodies. Women’s bodies are subjected to abuse, attack and even murder. There is a clear space for the exploration of dilemmas and manifestations of masculinity’s dominance over women’s bodies in this narrative.

The metaphorical language in Hosea 2 threatens and discriminates against women. The threat begins with Yahweh/Hosea instructing the children to beg their mother to ignore her promiscuity (2:3). The escalation of the threat raises the stakes as the children become affected by their mother’s helplessness (2:4–5a). The children are sacrificed for their mother’s sexual offences. Their humiliation stems not only from their mother’s violation but also from their reliance on the material support of her lovers. This threat impacts both religious and human dimensions. On a religious level, scholars refer to the Canaanite deity believed to bring fertility. On a human level, this situation brings great shame to the husband, who is perceived as incapable of fulfilling his wife’s material and sexual needs, including controlling her behaviour.

In Hosea 2, Yahweh employs three strategies to address his ‘wifes’ actions, reflecting the social methods of a patrilineal culture aimed at controlling women’s sexuality. The first step a husband takes is to separate his wife from her lover (2:6–7a). This enforced isolation serves to make the wife aware of her dependence on her husband, a realisation she apparently had not grasped (2:7b–8). Israel’s divine isolation from her lover appears to serve as the model for Hosea’s confiscation of Gomer in 3:3–4. The actions of the human husband towards Israel and his wife symbolise God’s actions. Additionally, pornography is part of the broader wisdom that underscores the anticlimax of love being betrayed.

The second part of the husband’s strategy involves a series of physical and psychological punishments directed at the wife. He withholds food and clothing from her (2:9) and humiliates her by exposing her genitals in front of her lover. Nothing can save her from his dominion (2:10). He will end his laughter and the festival (2:11) and destroy vineyards and orchards, allowing animals to devour them (2:12). From her perspective, public humiliation and corporal punishment serve as a compensation for her own loss of public honour: ‘she burned incense to the Baals (baal); she decked herself with rings and jewellery and went after her lover, but me she forgot’ (2:13). In this section, the husband, motivated by jealousy, transforms love into anti-love by objectifying the woman’s body. The woman’s body becomes associated with humiliation, ignorance and cosmic disturbance.

The third part of the husband’s strategy to control his wife is the most dangerous. This section describes the joyful reconciliation between Yahweh and Israel. After the wife has endured the punishment she deserves and has experienced various forms of abuse, the husband will seduce her, take her to the wilderness and speak to her gently (2:14). This situation reveals a contradiction between the religious level and the human level. On a religious level, Sinai’s ‘wilderness’ idealism symbolises a space for building a covenant between God and Israel. Israel promises to remain loyal to Yahweh as the only God. She will once again be in the wilderness to respond to Yahweh (2:15) and recognises Yahweh as her true husband, not Baal (2:16). In turn, God will forgive her offences and commit to her forever (2:19–20).

The theology in Hosea 2 is framed by the overarching theme of the entire book, which emphasises love and faithfulness to God. During social, political and religious crises, Israel is expected to cultivate love and loyalty to Yahweh. Interestingly, this vertical relationship is metaphorically reflected in horizontal dynamics found in misogynistic literature. From a feminist perspective, this text presents several theological issues:

Firstly, the gender assignment of the metaphor equates masculinity with divinity and womanhood with sinful humanity. The wife is portrayed as the main perpetrator in an affair, while her true and respectful husband is cast as the ‘victim’. This reinforces a hierarchy of men over women and implies the natural inferiority of women.

Secondly, the metaphorical structure relies on the socio-legal premise that men have exclusive rights over their wives, which includes the ability to perpetuate female infidelity, control women’s fates and impose sanctions for abuse. Hosea grants sacred legitimacy to patriarchal control over women. Women are objectified, while men are subjectified. This privilege appears to afford men sexual freedom, while a woman’s voice is silenced, her actions condemned and her power suppressed as part of an intrinsic metaphor. The relationship between God and Israel becomes dichotomous, contrasting man and woman, sacred and profane, spirit and matter, immanent and transcendent. The ‘husband’ is depicted as divine, true, faithful and positive, while the ‘wife’ is presented as a morally corrupt human being, devoid of faith, negative or silent.

Reinterpreting this text provides an egalitarian and transformational theological perspective that eliminates the polarisation of gender and the distinction between subject and object. The relationship between God and Israel is affirmed through righteousness, justice, compassion and love. God initiates acts of reconciliation and restoration. Discrimination and exploitation can be addressed by fostering balanced relationships grounded in righteousness, justice, love and compassion. The threat posed by polytheism is contrasted with the commitment to monotheism in worshipping the Yahweh God. The foundation for this transformation lies in love and faithfulness to Yahweh.

Reimagination of the woman’s body in the context of sexual violation of women in Maluku

In this section, the authors present a new understanding of the woman’s body and its role in sexual violence within the Maluku context. They draw upon the method proposed by Walter Brueggemann, known as ‘Prophetic Imagination’ (2018). Brueggemann offers this concept as a means to counter the dominant ideologies in society. Prophetic imagination serves as an alternative framework to respond to and transform social issues. It helps identify and articulate the problem of sexual violence while envisioning and pursuing a more emancipatory future. The narrative of crisis must be transformed into a narrative of restoration. The prophetic imagination consists of three premises (Brueggemann 2018):

Firstly, alternative consciousness. This concept serves as a counter-ideology to the domination and exploitation of individuals and nature. From a feminist perspective, alternative consciousness encourages treating the woman’s body with kindness, equality and love. It promotes recovery for both victims and perpetrators of sexual violence.

Secondly, prophetic criticism. Alternative consciousness must be nurtured to critique and dismantle the prevailing dominant consciousness. Prophetic criticism has a dual purpose: (1) to be open to hearing and seeing the suffering of both victims and perpetrators honestly, critically and creatively. A keen awareness of the woman’s body is essential for identifying and addressing the issues of sexual violence. (2) It aims to transform narratives of suffering into narratives of restoration. The argument is that every narrative is dynamic and evolving. The crisis narratives surrounding the woman’s body must be mobilised and reshaped into narratives of healing, restoration and celebration.

Thirdly, prophetic energising. The prophetic attitude seeks to energise and empower communities in their recovery (2018). Prophetic energising emphasises three key aspects: (1) energy emerges from embracing inscrutable darkness (2018:14). New strength can be found amid crisis and suffering; thus, we must confront and illuminate the darkness surrounding women. (2) Prophetic energising necessitates attitudes and narratives of engagement. Its essence lies in compassion and action (Brueggemann 2018:16). This approach avoids detachment and observation of the crisis; instead, it advocates for active participation in restoring justice for women. (3) The final aspect of energising is a doxology that centres on the restoration and freedom of women (Brueggemann 2018:16). This doxology serves as a celebratory song for the liberation of all women.

The authors’ constructive reimagination of women’s bodies in the context of sexual violation of women in Maluku, as described in the ‘Alternative consciousness’ section.

Alternative consciousness

Alternative consciousness is constructed through sensitivity and awareness of the dominant issues and ideologies present in society. It serves to counter the prevailing ideology. In Hosea 2, the dominant issue is the metaphor of the politicisation of women’s bodies, which is both discriminatory and exploitative. This prevailing textual ideology is also reflected in contemporary contexts.

Currently, many women worldwide become victims of prostitution, human trafficking, exploitation and discrimination related to their bodies. Commercial acts and sexual exploitation take various forms and spread rapidly. In the business industry, women’s bodies are often utilised as tools, portrayed as sexy and erotic in pursuit of profit.

Acts of sexual violence represent a significant criminal and social issue at local, national, global and transnational levels (Randa & McGarry 2023; Safitri, Ardiansah & Prasetyo 2023). In the Maluku context, there has been a notable increase in sexual violence cases over the last 3 years (2022–2024). The trend is as follows: 79 cases in 2022, 99 in 2023 and 36 in 2024 (Directorate of General Criminal Investigation of the Republic of Indonesia Police – Maluku, Region n.d.). In reality, the number of cases may be much larger and more diverse than those detected or reported to the authorities. Cases of sexual violence are a harsh reality.

Stories of sexual abuse

The narrative below tells a story of pain and suffering stemming from multiple cases of sexual violence that occurred in Maluku. Women’s bodies were instrumentalised for the pleasure and sexual satisfaction of men. This narrative reveals several layers of suffering experienced by the victims of violence, including pain, injury, shame, fear, trauma and deep stress.

Case one

Victim Iren Latumahina endured 23 years of sexual violence at the hands of her husband. She was forced to engage in sexual acts multiple times a day, regardless of her circumstances, including during menstruation or when she was ill. Additionally, the victim frequently experienced physical violence, such as being beaten and kicked, as well as psychological abuse through cursing and humiliation. She underwent a gynaecological operation because of severe damage to her cervix and currently suffers from eye problems caused by frequent blows to her face and head. The perpetrator’s motivations for committing sexual violence included jealousy, intoxication and economic factors stemming from his lack of a stable job. The victim has now decided to leave her husband and live separately in a boarding house with her children. The perpetrator shows no shame or guilt for his actions, instead continually asking his wife to return, claiming he has repented. So far, case handling has only involved non-litigious pastoral assistance to the perpetrator, which has not been conducted intensively (Iren Latumahina, 44-years-old, housewife, Maluku, Indonesia).

Case two

Fien Manoppo, the perpetrator’s wife, was also a victim of multiple acts of sexual violence committed by her husband (NM). The forms of violence included forced sexual intercourse, humiliation through derogatory language, curses and insults, as well as the tearing of clothes and being humiliated by being forced to walk without clothing in their home. This sexual violence occurred repeatedly, either when the perpetrator wanted to have sex or when the victim refused to comply with his demands. The trigger for this abuse was the perpetrator’s uncontrolled sexual desire, which suggested he may have been hypersexual. Unfortunately, the church did not handle this case seriously through pastoral services, nor was it pursued through legal channels, as it was deemed a private husband-wife issue. As a result, there was no change in the perpetrator’s behaviour (Fien Manoppo, 45-years-old, homemaker, Maluku, Indonesia).

Prophetic criticism: Naming the villain

According to Brueggemann, the next steps in identifying alternative consciousness are the construction of prophetic criticism. The alternative consciousness that must be nourished to criticise and dismantle dominant consciousness (2018). One of the forms of prophetic criticism in responding to the politicisation of women’s body is naming the villain. Imprisoned in a hidden culture, there are no names of the acts of sexual violence and instead ignored and normalised. Prophetic criticism leads to the naming and factual recognition of acts of sexual violation. Naming the villain is a manifestation of solidarity and partisanship with victims. Based on this alternative consciousness, this section proposes formulations of prophetic criticism.

Patriarchal culture

Most feminists attribute acts of violence to patriarchy as the ‘system’ that allows man to exploit and abuse woman. The sense of entitlement that society gives men reinforces the authority of man’s control over woman (Usog 2008:7). In patriarchal culture, masculine sexuality is superior, while feminine sexuality is subordinated. Patriarchal society portrays woman as instruments to satisfy man zest. This concept legitimises and normalises the actions of perpetrators (man) of sexual violence and tends to blame victims (woman). Both cases above (Cases 1 and 2) prove the authority of ownership of the husband, the perpetrator of violence against his wife. The victim’s sexuality (IL & FNH) was controlled for the satisfaction of his wife’s sexual desires.

A woman’s body is an instrument for patriarchal interests. Pregnancy, childbirth, body care and domestic roles are instrumentalist for the patriarchy’s benefit. One of the factors that contributes to the continuation of sexual violence against women in Maluku is patriarchal culture. Maluku as a patrilineal society is dominated by a unique patriarchal system. The uniqueness of Maluku society is constructed from the geographical contours of the sea islands with the characteristics of coastal, mountainous, rural and urban communities in sub-ethnic diversity.

Religious and tradition

Patriarchal Christianity has established a pattern of patriarchal anthropology. The theological and ecclesiastical discourse surrounding femininity and the subordination of women reinforces violence against women and children (Usog 2008:8). This perspective is supported by Mary Daly (1968) and Mary John Mananzan (1996). In her book, The Church and the Second Sex, Mary Daly traces the evolution of misogyny in Christianity, highlighting misinterpretations of the creation story, narratives of the patriarchs, attitudes towards women as inferior or the weaker sex, the partial representation of Mary and the pronouncements of Church Fathers regarding women (1968:32). Meanwhile, Mary John Mananzan, in her book The Women Question in the Philippines, describes how the role of the church contributes to the marginalisation and harassment of women (1995).

In the context of Maluku, specifically the Protestant Church of Maluku, as one of the largest mainstream churches in Maluku, has not provided justice for the handling of women’s pastor, victims of sexual violence. Church regulations and pastoral ministries have not provided full justice and protection to women as victims of violence. A clergywoman who is a victim of sexual violence should be disciplined by the church, as she is seen to have failed to uphold the authority of the family of God’s servant. The victim-blaming pattern has been directed at clergywoman.

This has left a significant mark on women, the way religion, especially the Church, treats women, victims of violence in the past and the present. The woman strives and struggles to liberate herself from the shackles of patriarchal power. The role of the Church towards victims of violence is influenced by the construction of church theology on sexuality, virginity and marriage. The formulation and foundation of Church theology have not completely freed women from patriarchal authority.

In the Maluku context, it is still trapped in a shameful, hidden and silent culture. Cases of sexual violence are perpetuated because perpetrators, victims and communities tend to keep silent about these cases. Another thing, most of Maluku customs contribute to preserving sexual violence because the handling of cases is resolved through customs and family, with the payment of fines. In the Larvul Ngabal custom in Tual and Duan Lolat in Saumlaki, every case of sexual violence (harassment, rape and domestic violence) tends to be resolved through custom and is not handled through formal government legal litigation.

Prophetic energising: The body as locus for reconciliation and forgiveness

The alternative consciousness must be cultivated to energise people and communities with the promise of hope during a crisis. An energising prophetic attitude can be initiated by building the church’s sensitivity and consciousness of discrimination against women. In this section, the authors will construct a new imagination about the woman’s body. A new imagination by building an attitude of honouring and glorifying woman’s body as a site of reconciliation and forgiveness. The role of energising prophecy can be formulated as follows in this section.

Reclaiming agency over self and body

In both narratives cited, the woman’s body is the central locus of unequal gender relations. Based on the experience of witnessing a number of violence, exclusion and harassment against woman’s body, Evangeline Anderson-Rajkumur, a theologian, provides a new vision and imagination of the woman’s body. Anderson-Rajkumur empowers women to define and articulate their bodies, not only as site of violence and shame, but also as site of resistance (2005:57). Rationalisation is that a large number of women are ignored and distanced from their own bodies. Societal conditioning of male as ‘owners’ and female as being ‘owned’ has created a distance to one’s own body (Lanzetta 2005:188).

Woman in patriarchal societies have not been trained and empowered to claim autonomous responsibility for their own bodies. When harassment occurs, women must build resilience to avoid moral paralysis, becoming helpless and voiceless. Women ought to liberate their bodies from negative stigma, objectification and instrumentalisation. Women’s identity and value are not determined by external forces, but by themselves. The commitment and decision to liberate the body from the domination of masculinity must come from within each woman. In women’s stories, ‘paralysis of will’ occurs in response to harassment. Women must not allow patriarchal forces to devalue their identity and the worth of women’s bodies.

Espiritu suggests that overcoming violence against women’s bodies means for people to create new imagination of each other’s bodies as instruments for building relationships of mutual love, care and respect. Women must be autonomous individuals who are able to control their bodies and sexuality. There are several ways to empower women’s bodies, namely:

• Women have the independence to make decisions regarding bodily integrity (including sexual integrity).
• Women have the right to make decisions about their health and well-being in accordance with women’s voices, emotions, thoughts and experiences and to protect themselves from threats to health risks to reproductive ability.
• Women are encouraged to discuss sexuality publicly. Woman can confidently express their sexuality, including both the pleasure and sexual violence they have experienced.
• Women have the independent authority to consider and make decisions regarding their behaviour and clothing preferences.

For victims of sexual abuse, the journey to recovery and healing is long and difficult. At some point, they feel a strong dislike and hatred for their own bodies. Because her body is ‘invaded against her will, used as an object by another, or injured by someone she trusted to care for her’, a woman suffers from impurity. Women struggle against their inner dirt.

Based on the findings of focus group discussions (FGDs) in Maluku, perpetrators of violence who harass, intimidate and attack victims are located within the domestic sphere of the immediate family. The perpetrators are the closest people, the victim’s closest circle, including biological father, stepfather, biological grandfather, husband, wife, cousin, uncle, neighbour, priest and motorcycle taxi driver.

In this case, the ‘Cha-cha Latin’ dance movement is a symbolic metaphor for efforts to heal victims of violence. This dance movement is one step forward and two steps back (Usog 2008:11). This movement provides energy that in facing problems and perpetrators, one step of healing victims is by taking two steps back with acts of reconciling and forgiving. Healing for victims starts with a willingness to reconcile and forgive oneself, the problem and the perpetrator.

The way forward: Healing, reconciling and forgiving

Here the authors instruct how victims take steps forward to obtain comprehensive liberation. In this case, authors elaborate on Miroslav Volf’s (1996) and Christie Cosal Neuger’s (2001) ideas to break the chain of violence. This article uses Volf’s idea to offer a functional relationship of healing, reconciliation and forgiveness for both victims and perpetrators. Meanwhile, Neuger’s idea focuses on efforts to empower victims to provide new imaginations about woman’s body.

The process of victim liberation is undertaken through three creative powers: healing, reconciling and forgiving. Traumatic experiences, deeply embedded in the victims’ bodies and souls, imprison those affected by violence. Victims endure psychological shocks and complexities, including guilt, shame, disgust and profound trauma. Additionally, an attitude of ‘blaming the victim’ further contributes to their imprisonment. How do women experience healing? The healing journey for victims is immeasurable. A victim’s ability to speak, accept their circumstances and choose to continue life with a new perspective serves as indicators of healing. The restoration of self-esteem and the ability to control one’s life autonomously are also key markers of recovery. The metaphor of the ‘wounded healer’ illustrates the healing process. Victims should be encouraged, challenged and motivated to engage in therapeutic healing from their traumatic experiences. A movement is necessary for victims to transition into survivors, expanding their horizons for recovery. Victims can connect with one another to build supportive and liberating communities.

Sexual violence has a significant impact on victims for life, both lifestyle and physical changes, even leave emotional chaos for victims. Victims express various reactive responses to the complexity of this crisis, including: firstly, victims ask questions about theodicy and the nature of God during the crisis. Secondly, victims find it difficult to forgive the perpetrators. Thirdly, victims tend to blame themselves. The critical question is, what kind of theological concept of forgiveness and reconciliation is appropriate for the healing of the victim and perpetrator?

To solve the theological question, a theological clarification of forgiveness and reconciliation is necessary. The concept of forgiveness and reconciliation is not the same: forgiveness is one-sided, while reconciliation is reciprocal, requiring repentance. The next thing, forgiveness is not cheap, where the victim easily forgets the pain and forgives the perpetrator without repentance. In the New Testament, the term αφιηµι [afiimi] refers to ‘forgive’, which means ‘to let go’. This concept affirms that forgiveness is simply releasing and ignoring the total negative feelings, wounds and trauma of sexual violence. Anchor Bible Dictionary defines forgiveness as the complete removal of guilt from memory. Forgiveness is unconditional between the perpetrator and the victim. Another assumption, the name of God is attributed to justify the act of forgiving and forgetting the victim’s emotional wounds (Smetana 2024).

In the context of sexual violence, the author refers to and reconceptualises Miroslav Volf’s vision of forgiveness and reconciliation. Volf builds the concept of ‘embracing’ only from the victim perspective; the author expands the reconceptualisation of the vision for both perpetrators and victims. Volf proposes that the way to break the cycle of violence is to build an embracing community, not to exclude. According to Volf, the vision of final reconciliation can only be built through the guidance of the Triune God (1996).

Volf (1996) proposes four important steps in the progressive movement from exclusion to reconciliation, namely: firstly, ‘repentance’, secondly, ‘forgiveness’, thirdly, ‘making space in oneself for others’ and fourthly, ‘healing memory’. The first step is repentance. Social change begins with a change of heart and behaviour. This repentance should occur for both victims and perpetrators. Victims must repent of attitudes of exclusion and hostility towards perpetrators, as exclusion is a form of sin. Meanwhile, perpetrators must recognise, acknowledge and repent of their repressive actions against women’s bodies. The theological basis for this is that forgiveness is not cheap; it is costly, as demonstrated through the sacrifice of Christ.

The second step is forgiveness. Forgiveness provides access to the path to reconciliation. Mutual forgiveness between the perpetrator and the victim requires relational forgiveness. Jesus taught this truth: ‘Father, forgive them for they do not know what they are doing’. Jesus’ teaching is the ultimate example of realising the truth and power of forgiveness. What about justice? Is forgiveness a substitute for justice? According to Volf, because strict restorative justice is impossible, no reconciliation is possible outside the framework of forgiveness. The power of forgiveness provides a framework for understanding and pursuing the thaw of authenticity. The power of the victim’s forgiveness is in the presence of God. His awareness that God is love and justice will judge the perpetrator for his wrongdoing. The cross of Christ becomes the centre of the encounter and the space of ‘mutual indwelling’ of both perpetrator and victim.

The third step is to give space to one another. We must give space to ourselves (victims) and to each other (perpetrators). The space of indwelling between one another is the cross. The essence of the cross is Christ’s stance not to allow the other to remain an enemy and to create space within himself for the offender to enter. The cross is a consequence of God’s desire to break the power of human hostility without violence and to accept humans into divine fellowship. The ultimate step is healing memory.

The last step provides a way for reconciliation. The recovery of memories of past trauma. Victims and perpetrators must be willing to embrace and restore the memory of past trauma. Victims and perpetrators both will enjoy forgiveness if they are willing to reconcile and forgive themselves, others and the community (Constantineanu 2013; Volf 1996).

In the context of victim recovery and empowerment, the author references Christie Cosal Neuger’s (2001:141–147) concept of the five R’s, namely (1) remembering; (2) reframing; (3) reversing; (4) re-imagining; and (5) restoring.

Remembering: Victims must find the courage to acknowledge and accept their negative experiences of violence as undeniable truths. Remembering is the initial step in the healing process. It is essential to assist victims in confronting and accepting the memories of their wounds from violence as a reality of their lives.

Reframing: This is a gentle process that makes the content of a story accurate and honest, then finds a new perspective to see and interpret the content. Every action in an event has various interpretations. The goal of this process is not to diagnose pathology but to provide a potential and creative framework for the silent message and to facilitate a new, preferred narrative.

Reversing: In this case, Mary Daly suggests that to gain clarity, victims need to reverse the great revelation of patriarchy. The assumption is that the reversal of values and indoctrination of patriarchal truth will lead victims to find the greater truth of the lives of victims of violence (Mary Daly). To get one greater truth for healing, women need to take two steps back to make peace.

Imagining: Imagination is one of the most important and effective resources for helping women gain clarity and envision new directions and options. Imagery, as an internal experience, integrates perceptions, feelings and meanings into a new world. Utilising imagination releases the creative and integrative power within each survivor, allowing them to discover which symbols foster a more meaningful relationship with God, themselves and creation.

Restoring: This is the process of taking the stories that are not in the experience to claim, accommodate them and build them into the core narrative. The purpose of the core narrative is to accumulate a collection of experiences that a person has had and make integrative meaning from them. The core narrative is what serves as the integrative lens. Restoring is a process that occurs at the individual, relational, institutional and cultural levels. This process is integrative and ongoing.

The victim reimagines her body image as a woman who is fully recovered and free. She views and articulates her body from a new perspective. Her goal is to cultivate an attitude of honour and to glorify her body as a site of forgiveness and reconciliation.

Conclusion

The politicisation of women’s bodies is a crucial issue in Hosea 2, where women’s bodies are used as metaphorical icons and politicised to depict negative and exploitative perceptions. This metaphorical and factual marginalisation of women’s bodies is also evident in today’s context. Women’s bodies are exploited to legitimise patriarchal authority. This study presents the concept of prophetic imagination based on three principles: firstly, it is essential to cultivate sensitivity and awareness of alternatives to counter various forms of politicisation of women’s bodies in both texts and contexts. The authors reinterpret Hosea 2 from a new, positive, appreciative and celebratory perspective on women’s bodies. Secondly, the church must actively develop its prophetic role of criticism. In this role, the Church must denounce all forms of exploitation and discrimination against women’s bodies. Thirdly, the Church should adopt a prophetic energising role. It must utilise its critical function as a foundation to develop an energising prophetic role that transforms the existence of women’s bodies.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge the Directorate General of Higher Education, Research and Technology, Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology and the Head of the Research Institute of Indonesia Christian University Maluku for their moral and financial support for this research.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

J.A.T., M.M.A.A. and M.H. contributed to the implementation of this research and conducted data collection. J.A.T. conceptualised the research, analysed the data and wrote the final manuscript.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Indonesian Christian University in the Moluccas (reference no.: 247/U1<M.H5 FFT/C/2025 No).

The authors disclose that they received financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. This research was funded by the Budget for the Directorate of Research, Technology and Community Services, Directorate General of Higher Education, Research and Technology, Ministry of Education and Culture, Fiscal Year 2024 (reference no: DIPA-023.17.1.690523/2024).

The authors confirm that the data supporting this study and its findings are available within the article.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s findings, and content.

References