The predicament facing the Church and State attracts nostalgia in Zimbabwe, and across Africa. A number of scholars, such as Bosch (1999) and Pillay (2017), affirm that ecclesiology is biblically and historically transformational. Confirming their assertion, the Early Church, Medieval Church and Reformation Church professed and propelled inclusive transformation for the benefit of all people. The authority and basis of Christianity – the Bible – speaks through Matthew 5:13–16, by stating that believers should be the salt and light of the world, which means, metaphorically, that they should be good examples of purity and uphold the right standards for life, such as honesty, conscientiousness, morality and diligence in work, speech, conduct and thought, while influencing others to do the same.

Africa has been struggling with social, economic and political evils; yet, as Galal (2023), McClendon (2017) and Jenkins (2016) reveal, Christianity is regarded to be the main religion on the continent, and the majority of Africans are Christians. Considering that the Christian gospel is predominantly inclusive and transformational and fosters the Christ-like tenets of righteousness, stewardship, servanthood and responsible citizenship, it is paradoxical that most African nations are struggling with a variety of social, economic and political evils, such as substance abuse, corruption, vote-rigging and selfishness. In this context, the vehicle of transformation – the Church – is presently viewed as a cold, sleeping and dying giant. In attempts to revive her and effect the needful integral transformation in Zimbabwe, this article overviews Christianity, unpacks Zimbabwean crises, delineates Missio Dei, redefines the Church and anatomises Missio Ecclesiae in Africa. Subsequently, it overviews transformational leadership and followership, and explores a possible revival to curb the identified crises.

Zimbabwe was born on 17 April 1980 after a protracted war of independence. Before independence, the country was known as Southern Rhodesia, after Cecil John Rhodes, who had been the inspiration for Britain’s colonising Pioneer Column into the territories now known as Zimbabwe. In 1965, White Rhodesians issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence via Britain. The war of independence was fought against White Rhodesians by various nationalist groups, and it eventually resulted in a peace settlement being signed at the Lancaster House Conference in London in 1979. The conference led to elections in 1980, which were won by Robert Mugabe, who was eventually removed from power by a military-assisted coup in November 2017 (Asuelime 2018) after he had been in power for 37 years.

This context is imperative for comprehension of the matter under study (Dohn, Hansen & Klausen 2018:1–17). It forms the foundation for our review of the Zimbabwean situation, which is done to demonstrate the necessity of reviving the Church, transformational leadership and followership, and to transform Zimbabwe. The country has been facing an unsettling political and socio-economic catastrophe during the long reign of Mugabe, throughout the militarised rise of incumbent President Emerson Mnangagwa, who took power in November 2017, to today (Assubuji 2016; Cook 2017:1; Noko 2022; Tagwirei 2022:9–10). Zimbabwe remains riddled with political conflict and violence (Tarusarira 2014:93). Masunungure and Bratton (2018:1) comment that President Mnangagwa, when he entered power, promised reformist governance, but is yet to fulfil this promise. Consequently, the cost of living has risen, stimulating a massive exodus of millions of people, and depriving the economy of the highly skilled workers who are needed for industrial growth (Chitiyo et al. 2019:4). Since the main opposition leader, Nelson Chamisa, devoted himself to Christianity, engaged spiritualities, and churches have been appealing for free and fair elections in 2023, most Zimbabweans raised hope for political change in a troubled state (Chitumba 2023). However, as observed by Chan (2023), the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission, which runs elections, promulgates

Consequently, Zimbabwe experienced severe structural degeneration, immense deindustrialisation, and informalisation of its economy. As Kanyenze, Chitambara and Tyson (2017:6) observe, the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF) has also politicised, corrupted and weakened public institutions, scared potential investors away by continuous political instability, and instituted policy inconsistencies that undermine business confidence. Muronzi (2022) notes that runs of the highest inflation rate in the world have caused living standards to plummet and the majority of citizens to fall into extreme poverty. I agree with Chitiyo et al. (2019:25) that the state of affairs in Zimbabwe has upset households, businesses, and the social fabric of the country. In this context, endemic and multifaceted corruption, criminality, substance abuse, and mental ill-health have increased, as citizens struggle to survive through unconventional means amid tragic hopelessness and helplessness. Bearing in mind that 85% of the Zimbabwean population profess to be Christian (Gaga, Masengwe & Dube 2023:69), the prevalence of political, social and economic ills is a paradox.

As Christians are expected be the salt and light of the world (Mt 5:13–16), that they have little impact and influence on politics, economics and society is a cause for concern. Is the Church still in the world, yet not of the world (Jn 17:16–17)? It is public knowledge that the majority of incumbent leaders in high social, economic and political offices are Christians. For example, the ruling president, Mnangagwa, describes himself as a born-again Christian, in spite of his nickname:

Christian leaders, such as Uebert Angel (born Hubert Mudzanire), who was appointed by Mnangagwa to be ambassador-at-large to the Americas and Europe in 2021, purportedly to market Zimbabwe as ‘open for business investments’ (Murwira 2021), were recently exposed for being entangled in a fraudulent gold Mafia that also involves the president’s family (Al Jazeera Investigative Unit 2023). Dube (2021) argues that, instead of playing a prophetic role, by speaking against evil and advancing transformational leadership and being as the salt and light of the world, a number of them, such as Prophet Walter Magaya, Bishop Nehemiah Mutendi, Apostle Andrew Wutaunashe, and White Garment Church leaders are, instead, regime enablers. Whether such leaders are co-opted or self-submit to court prophecy, they must confirm the need to revive and transform Zimbabwean Christianity, leadership and integral mission to attend all issues affecting the nation. If Christians and leaders can be revived and transformed, they should, together, be able to revive and transform Zimbabwe holistically. Before exploring the integral revival Zimbabwe needs, it is paramount to delineate the mission of God on earth (Missio Dei), redefine the Church in Zimbabwe, anatomise Missio Ecclesiae and overview transformational leadership and followership, as prerequisites to addressing Zimbabwean crises.

Missio Dei is a Latin theological expression that means the mission of God. Scholars agree that Missio Dei is predominantly a call for the Christian community to worship God as he is. It belongs to and serves graciously holistic purposes, for God to reconcile and redeem humanity with him, and with each other. Arthur (2009:2) says that the mission of God has an overarching purpose to see people living in communion with each other and with himself, and to bring about reconciliation in a broken cosmos. Thomas Schirrmacher, through his book, ‘Missio Dei, God’s missional nature’, defines Missio Dei as the sending of Jesus Christ to the world by God and the Church to serve humanity through the Church, up to the end of time (2017:12). This explanation is based on John 17:18, which reads, ‘As you sent me into the world, I have sent them into the world’, and Mark 16:15, ‘Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation’ (NIV).

Flett (n.d.:75–77) adds that Missio Dei is a divine engagement that calls the Church to participate in God’s all-encompassing transformative mission in the world. Wright (2006:71) posits that Missio Dei demonstrates that salvation belongs to God who sits on the throne (with reference to Rv 7:10), and the Bible is principally about the life-bearing story of how God brought about his salvation for the whole cosmos. Mission belongs to God, and it is the prior reality out of which flows any mission we get involved in. Thus, in agreement with Harold (2019:3), ‘the church is an instrument used by God to bring about well-being to the world. The bringing out of well-being calls for an understanding of the Missio Dei that includes justice and compassion’.

Thus, Missio Dei is not merely salvific, but comprehensively inclusive. Otiso (2022:25) studied the understanding of Missio Dei in the Global South and observes that Missio Dei is taken from its origination with God, and begins when a community of believers understand the work and call to the communion of, and with, the personage of the Trinity. Therefore, the mission of the Church can only be appropriately derived from the mission of God. As such, it is an extension of God through inclusive delivery of the gospel in correspondence with contextual circumstances. All in all, Missio Dei refers to the work of the Church as part of God’s integral work in the world. Therefore, it is important to review the current state of the Church in Zimbabwe, to redefine it and observe how she can serve the mission of God effectively.

The Church in Zimbabwe is currently a mixed and confusing entity because of various images that are used to portray her. The term church is often assigned different meanings that depend on circumstantial references (cf. Howard 2017). In the Zimbabwean context, the term can refer to various perspectives, which equate the church to a workshop, market place, theatre, salvationist embassy, or a burial society.

The term Missio Ecclesiae stands for the task of the Church. When God called Israel as the people of God, he had a purpose for them. Israel was to be ‘a light to the nations’ (Is 42:5–8). God calls the church, which is the new people of God, into being – as he did with Israel – in order to restore humanity to fellowship with the creator (Ac 1:8; Mt 28:18–20). The role and purpose of the church, therefore, is to facilitate the gathering of God’s people to worship, honour, and glorify God through Jesus Christ (Eph 3:21). As Nkansah-Obrempong says, the Church’s God-given agenda is not only spiritual, but extends to diakonia: ‘The church is God’s agent for bringing economic, political, spiritual, moral, and social transformation in society’ (2017:283). This statement is related to Mathew 5:13–16, which depicts disciples as the salt and light of the world. Being the salt and light of the world means that Christians should be active enough to influence, enlighten, transform, serve, and save their societies, for the glory of God. Thus, Missio Ecclesiae is revival, and transformative. In light of that realisation, mission promotes liberation theology, by speaking and acting for poor people, freeing those who are oppressed, and providing spiritual, social, political, and economic healing and deliverance in view of Luke 4:18, which states Jesus Christ’s words:

It is with reference to this reflection that this article seeks to reignite the integral mission of the Church. She has been less audible than she should be on worsening political and economic crises, especially after Zimbabwe experienced a coup in 2017, and presidential elections that were unfree, unfair, and hotly disputed in 2018 and 2023. Multiple social problems have seen an upsurge, such as substance abuse (Mandura 2023; Matutu & Mususa 2019), moral decadence (Moyo 2017), systemic corruption (Zinyama 2021), that also entangles Church leaders (Dube 2023), and a high crime rate (Chenjerai 2023; Mangwaya 2023). Zimbabwe is experiencing a renewed exodus of citizens who are trying to escape social and economic disintegration, as they flock to other countries in search of political and socio-economic relief (Mazingaizo 2023; Moyo 2019). Ordinary citizens who stay behind experience the consequences of the brain drain, while the divorce rate, mental ill-health, desperation, helplessness and hopelessness escalate. State leaders appear irresponsibly autocratic, self-serving, and violent, and cow dissenting voices into submission (Flanagan 2023). In this milieu, when the Church – which is supposed to be a voice of the voiceless – gives in to fear and takes a sheepish and quietist approach, revival becomes an urgent need. If the Church – the salt and light of the world (Mt 5:13–16) – loses her ‘saltiness’ and ‘lightness (activeness, influence and transformational power)’, and fails to change the sad stories and realities of people who are desperate for integral transformation, she becomes useless and irrelevant to society. Silence and inaction on prevailing political and socio-economic crises necessitates a revival. Once the Church is revived, she will rise and transform Christian and secular leadership and followership, and deliver Zimbabwe from the multi-layered crises. Before exploring the much-needed integral revival, the following section provides an overview of the kind of leadership and followership that can transform Zimbabwe.

Transformational leadership is a style of leading people and institutions. Generally, this type of leadership inspires leaders and followers to transcend their own interests to achieve shared institutional benefits. Nainggolan et al. (2022:1) base their reflections on Nehemiah, and explain that transformative leadership produces holistic positive change at every stage of activity. Alqatawenh (2018:18) says that transformational leadership idealises influence by stimulating, facilitating and enhancing collective awareness, enthusiasm, attention, involvement, innovation and cooperation, to realise positive change and eventually wins followers’ respect and support. It motivates subordinates to do their best and develop their skills, so as to deliver those subordinates to advanced intellectual and practical levels. This type of leadership is reminiscent of Nehemiah, whom the Bible presents as a transformational leader. Nehemiah was a strategic and transformational leader who is as characterised as being prayerful, visionary, inclusive, consultative, idealistic, influential, adaptable, focussed and sacrificial.

Scholars such as Patton (2017) and Ogochi (2018:88) concur that the heart of Christian transformational leadership is communication and engagement between leaders and God. This is evident in the biblical example of Nehemiah, who engaged with God for discernment, counsel, guidance, empowerment, and protection. God responds to intercessions, petitions, supplications and all kinds of prayers, as the Bible confirms in many references, such as Genesis 18:22–19:29; 2 Chronicles 7:13–14; Psalms 50:15; Mathew 7:7; Mark 11:24, John 14:13-14 and 1 John 5:15, Therefore, leaders who pray for their nations and engagements will be answered and transformed, and enabled to transform their constituencies and followers. That is why, when Nehemiah heard that the walls and gates of Jerusalem were broken down and ruined, leaving remnant of Israel that had survived exile in serious trouble and shame, without security and dignity, Nehemiah contemplated the problem, envisioned rebuilding the fallen state, fasted and interceded for God to forgive his people, and to graciously enable, empower and resource him to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–11).

If followers are influenced by leaders who resemble Nehemiah and who are Christ-like and God-inspired, they are enlightened, transformed, empowered, and are led to rebuild their nation. Interfacing this with John 10:10, which reminds us that, in spite of the ‘thief’ (the devil, and, in this case, crises), Jesus Christ came to give holistic life. As he confirms through Luke 4:18, Jesus Christ modelled integral mission by proclaiming and demonstrating all-inclusive liberation for the needy and oppressed. Thus, when followership is transformational, followers will not turn a blind eye to the currently broken Zimbabwean socio-economic and political state. Imagine what would be possible if followers rallied behind well-meaning leaders and applied the gospel to the Zimbabwean context of darkness, hopelessness, and helplessness. In a metaphorical sense, we can compare the Zimbabwean situation to when Nehemiah saw Jerusalem ruined, the walls broken down and citizens scattered. Although Zimbabwe’s physical walls are unbroken, her political, economic and social state is broken and Zimbabweans have scattered in search of greener pastures, political and socio-economic relief. Yet, the book of second Chronicles 7:14 speaks volumes about this situation: ‘If my people, which are called by my name, shall humble themselves, and pray, and seek my face, and turn from their wicked ways; then will I hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin, and will heal their land’ (NIV). If Christian followers revive and transform their citizenship and take up responsibility, they could intercede, speak out and stand up against political, economic and political ills, such as dictatorship, corruption and nepotism, and contribute to national healing and rebuilding.

Kritzinger (2007) warns against the privatisation of Christianity and argues that unless Christians, who make up the majority of national citizens, commit themselves to significant processes of people-centred development, instead of continuing with practice of their lukewarm and comfortable private Christianities, we should not be surprised if our predicament remains unchanged. The majority of Zimbabwean Church leaders and congregants publicly complain on various social media platforms that the Zanu-PF-led government has failed Zimbabwe, and that crises confronting the country are worsening. Arguably, the worsening of Zimbabwean crises confirms the need for leadership and followership to be revived and transformed enough to rebuild Zimbabwe, as Nehemiah and his followers did. Although Christians are heavenly-minded (Phlp 3:20–21), their current presence on earth begets dual citizenship. Thus, while they should keep in mind that they should prioritise living with and for God, they should contemporaneously live as the salt and light of the world (Mt 5:13–16). As Matikiti (2009) and Kritzinger (2007:1673–1674) explain, the Church should engage with national affairs, in view of Christianity being the truth in the midst of error and lies, righteousness in the midst of a sea of unrighteousness, and a spirituality in the midst our crass materialistic tendencies. Then, when followers are transformed, their exclusivism will be replaced by lovely inclusivism and responsible citizenship.

While transformed followers observe 1 Timothy 2:1–3 and offer supplications, prayers and intercessions for those in authority, they should not misconstrue eschatology and misinterpret citizenship as only applying to heaven – they are also citizens of their nation. This means they must go beyond praying, and vote in elections, advance the prophetic voice of the Church, exemplify Christian living among those who are corrupt and evil and, eventually, achieve the transformation of many to the glory of God, and of Zimbabwe. If followers rise and rally behind leaders who are like Nehemiah, live as salt and light in the world, and act as hearers and doers (Ja 1:22–25) of the holistic gospel, they will, eventually, be able to address their crises with the gospel and rebuild the broken state of Zimbabwe together. As Tutu (2017) says, the best way to do politics is to uphold Christian principles of truthfulness, faithfulness and honesty, which will see many politicians turning over a new leaf, thereby instituting the desired peace and development.

This article engaged with the manifold Zimbabwean political and socio-economic crises in light of the exemplary transformational leadership of Nehemiah, who rose up, raised a team of followers, and rebuilt the broken walls of Jerusalem. Considering that the majority of Zimbabweans claim to be Christians, it should be possible for them to serve and save the nation from her current predicament, which is caused by irresponsible citizenship, self-serving leadership, moral decadence, systematic corruption and related travails, which are ruining the beautiful landlocked nation politically, economically, and socially. In view of the volatile context of Zimbabwe, this article reimagines Zimbabwe and argues that, if Church leadership can be revived and transformed, and become other-centred, empowered and empowering through exemplifying intercessory prayer, transformative vision, strategy, teamwork, idealised influence, diligent stewardship and biblical conflict management, and their followers rally behind Nehemiah-kind of leaders, they can collectively advance Christ-like exemplariness, integral mission and responsible citizenship, and successfully rebuild the broken Zimbabwean state.