Addressing the interest in missional theology and responding to the recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, this research developed an apocalyptic missional theology for our time. Whilst the Second World War inspired an exploration of the eschatological dimensions of mission, it was argued that apocalyptic theology adds a much needed perspective on mission. In addition to replying to the pandemic, apocalyptic missiology proved to be well suited to speak about the challenges for the Church in South Africa, and introduces African modes of thinking to missiology. This study comprised a qualitative literature research method that traced the history of eschatology and apocalyptic in missional thinking (summarised apocalyptic theology), demonstrated that apocalyptic theology contributes to current missiology, and finally developed an apocalyptic agenda for the mission. The research found that apocalyptic offers new ways of speaking about God that challenges contemporary powers and power structures, and presents prophetic and ethical ways for the church to participate in the
This article suggested that apocalyptic theology adds new dimensions to missional theology, enriching the traditional discourse. It used the insights of biblical and religious studies, and applied it to missiology, as well as to systematic and practical theology.
The recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic awakened apocalyptic language and images in the public imagination. Some have visions of World War Z-like apocalypses that may occur when humankind’s exploitation of our natural world finally turns against us (Olivier
Apocalyptic has for centuries been downplayed in mainline churches (Bosch
After the Second World War, the eschatological motive for mission gained momentum, initially in continental Europe and later amongst the Anglo-Saxon theologians. At the meetings of the World Council of Churches in Amsterdam in 1948 (Evanston 1954; Willingen 1952), the emphasis on eschatology in the discussions and findings was evident (Meiring
Although the British and American missiologists were relatively late in accepting the importance of apocalyptic thinking (mostly falling back on traditional ideas about mission), a number of theologians joined the eschatological chorus. In the lead was Max Warren, who had already since 1948 developed a ‘Theology of Expectancy’ that aimed ‘to do justice to the eschatological thinking which sees “the end” as still to come, (which) is necessary if Christians are going to respond to the apocalyptic challenge of our day’
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Eschatological and apocalyptic perspectives were developed further in theologies of hope, developed by, amongst others, Hans Margull, Jürgen Moltmann and Oscar Cullmann (Bosch
Then, at the turn of the century, interest in apocalyptic theology seemed to wane, except for the monumental work,
In South African missiological thinking, some attention had been given to the meaning of
Some local theologians hinted at the exciting contribution to missiology that may stem from a renewed interest in apocalyptic thinking. Adrio König, whilst expressing his admiration and appreciation for Bosch’s work, challenged him to reconsider the apocalyptic in his missiology (König
Seeing that we once again live in an ‘apocalyptic time’, I attempt to explore the contribution that apocalyptic theology may make to current missiology – to set an apocalyptic agenda for mission – using a qualitative literature study. I will firstly define apocalyptic and distinguish between eschatology and apocalyptic, as these often seem to be used inconsistently, sometimes as synonyms and other times as opposites, or as consecutive stages. I will then describe the main features of apocalyptic, drawing together the insights of various theologians. Finally, I will propose what an apocalyptic agenda for a mission might entail. I hope to contribute to missiological thinking by arguing for a new look at apocalyptic, by recording the insights of earlier apocalyptic missiologists and suggesting some new dimensions for missiology in South Africa.
‘Apocalyptic’, according to the lexicon, is mostly used as an adjective to describe a catastrophic event or the destruction of the world; it is also used as an interchangeable synonym for eschatology (Lexico.com).
However, describing more closely what the term entails is not an easy task. ‘Apocalyptic’ is, as Tuckett (
How to define what is an ‘apocalypse’, or what can or should count as ‘apocalyptic’, whether it is sensible to talk about ‘apocalypticism’, whether there are genuinely ‘apocalyptic ideas’, or ‘apocalyptic ways of speaking’, the relationship (if any) between ‘apocalyptic’ and eschatology, are all issues which have no clear, unambiguous answers. (p. 155)
Le Roux (
In his monograph, Rowland offered a clear definition of apocalyptic and made a useful distinction between apocalyptic and eschatology. He described apocalyptic as an expression of religion, based on the revelation of divine secrets – mediated through dreams, visions or special revelations – that provide meaning and afford significance to us as humans (Rowland
Eschatology, in turn, is characterised by Rowland as the description of the end. Whilst eschatology may at times be part of apocalyptic, it is not a key feature of apocalyptic. Eschatology may differ from apocalyptic when it looks towards the fulfilment of God’s promises within history, whereas apocalyptic emphasises a supernatural intervention beyond time (
Not everybody accepts Rowland’s description. Wilken (
Rowland (
Whosoever gives his mind to four things, it were better for him if he had not come into the world – what is above, what is beneath, what was beforetime, and what will be hereafter. (p. 75)
This, according to Rowland, is exactly what the apocalyptic writers set out to do: understanding above and below, the powers of good and evil – that gives insight into before and after, the past and the future (Rowland
Similarly, Rowland explains apocalyptic by distinguishing two complimentary dimensional axes: one vertical (above–below) and the other horizontal (before–hereafter). In some apocalyptic writings of ascent and descent, the vertical axis is emphasised, whilst in eschatological predictions of divine intervention and judgement, the temporal, horizontal, axis dominates. An apocalyptic seer, then, understands the historical narrative in relation to the vertical axis of cosmic conflict (Morray-Jones
When characterising apocalyptic, it is important to remember that there are many diverse elements in these writings. Lombard (
In addition, whilst many Old Testament scholars locate the apocalyptic within the prophetic tradition, others follow Von Rad’s view that it should rather be seen as a late-type of wisdom literature (Morray-Jones
Despite the disagreement about the origin of apocalyptic and the differences in form and content, there are still more that the various apocalyptic writings have in common. König (
The language of the apocalyptic and the events described are supernatural, rather than natural. König (
In contrast to the ordinary, historical, familiar images of the prophets (peace, prosperity, or war, plague, drought) apocalyptic works with supernatural, extraordinary, rather unimaginable images and catastrophic experiences that will disturb the entire creation. (p. 26)
Apocalyptic starts off in a transcendental realm where promised saving blessings are already pre-existent in the world above, from where it will descend to earth (Ekem
The apocalyptic is often beyond normal time or removed from the historical time: ‘hope and life lie beyond our history’ (Lombard
Supernatural events may be the only hope when pessimism prevails. Apocalyptic literature’s view of history is pessimistic in the extreme: total despair of the history of the world and the prospects for humankind, and the world moving towards destruction (Lombard
It follows that the apocalyptic outcome will not arrive through any human agency, and eliminates humans’ participation in God’s programme (Le Roux
Likewise, apocalyptic knowledge is not accessible through ordinary reason, but rather revealed through dreams or oracles by which God discloses inaccessible mysteries to the apocalyptic visionaries (Ekem
Another aspect of the supernaturalness has to do with secret language and secret-keeping in apocalyptic. Whilst apocalyptic seers may understand or may have received a revelation on the unfolding of events, they keep it absolutely secret, perhaps because they themselves do not fully understand (Von Rad
Apocalyptic divides world history into exact periods or aeons, with the most basic division being the sharp distinction between the present evil age and the unimaginable good and beautiful age to come (Ekem
According to 2 Esdras 7:50, ‘[
Apocalyptic holds the conviction that God has complete control over history and will accomplish his goal. He (Le Roux
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Then God will bring about the dawning of the new, wonderful age.
Consequently, the dualism is also exhibited in descriptions of newness – a new creation, a new earth, the new people of God and new disclosures. Apocalyptic is not only concerned with the end, but also with what lies beyond it (Allen
In Christian apocalyptic, the dualism was modified. Whilst Jewish apocalyptic accepted a clear division between the present age and the age to come, this negative view of the present age was changed by the resurrection of Jesus, the outpouring of the Holy Spirit and Jesus’ frequent exorcisms. These all proclaimed ‘that in Jesus the kingdom of God had already appeared’ (König
The apocalyptic tradition reveals that the end of the present age, and the coming of the new age, is near. As God will bring his judgement to the world, the apocalyptic seers called their listeners to choose,
In apocalyptic, making the right choice now usually demands that believers make the right ethical choices. By following the ethical guidelines offered in apocalyptic, they take God’s side against the evil world, as explained later in the section ‘Options for humans’.
The message that Jesus rose from the dead already introduced the end time for Christian apocalyptics. The coming age was no longer restricted to the future, but had already been inaugurated, and was available to Christ’s followers (Bosch
Wielenga (
Apocalyptic focusses on all people and the entire world. Whilst the prophets spoke to the people of Israel and God’s dealings with the nations were understood to be related to Israel, the apocalyptic message proclaimed a new earth for all (König
In Christian apocalyptic, the universal message is even stronger. Bosch (
The style and language of the apocalyptic also have a universal application. It frequently contains symbolic and mystical images. Whilst these symbols were mostly derived from the Old Testament prophets (Brueggemann
Apocalyptic envisions a universal and final victory where God will completely destroy the Evil One who is responsible for the present chaos. ‘It introduces the eternal glory where there will never again be any resistance to God or any threat to his children’ (Ekem
This can also be seen in the determinism of apocalyptic. It is believed that the final events were determined far back in the past, and now history rapidly and irrevocably moves to the end of time through calamities in nature and amongst nations, to an inevitable culmination point determined by God. The ‘signs of the times’ signal and guarantee this victory (Allen
Christian apocalyptic also recognises the signs and wonders as harbingers of God’s final victory. Jesus’ victory over death is a final, once and for all victory over sin and darkness (Tuckett
Nothing is seen on the day of Pentecost of the apocalyptic images of bloodshed, fire and clouds of smoke (Joel 2:30), not because less happened than was prophesied (in fact much more happened in Acts 2 than a gruesome battle), but because apocalyptic prophesy can be fulfilled in a more ordinary way and less supernaturally. (p. 29)
What does apocalyptic offer missiology? Apocalyptic theology, as we have seen, arose in specific contexts where other types of theology could not adequately address the experiences of believers, and failed to provide a way forward. It spoke about the experience of the relative absence of God, the presence of sin and Satan and the terrible suffering of God’s people. In times of total despair, the apocalyptic writers re-interpreted the traditions of their predecessors for their times – often using pseudonyms – and adapting the words of the prophets or the wisdom of the sages of previous generations (Le Roux
It is then no wonder that not only eschatology, but also apocalyptic theology had featured strongly during and after the Second World War, giving hope to a disillusioned world. The ensuing decades of the Cold War sustained the interest in the apocalyptic mode. Although the apocalyptic voice has subsequently quieted down, our current crisis and context may well benefit from the visions of the apocalyptic seers.
I suggest that apocalyptic theology may enrich missiology in the following ways.
Despite, or probably because of, the felt absence of God, apocalyptic theology insists on a transcendent, almighty, impenetrable and supernatural concept of God. God is in complete control of all world events and is rolling out his predetermined plan for the world. Humans have no role to play in the unfolding of God’s intervention; the future does not depend on human action. Brueggemann (
Apocalyptic seers, however, are able to lift the veil, to see or to know what is taking place because of direct revelations, trances and insights that God gives to the faithful. They understand (some of) the secret plans of God and comfort others with this knowledge. Ultimately, God is beyond our understanding, or our judging, even beyond good and evil (Allen
König (
The church can with confidence proclaim that salvation is not something that humans can achieve, and that the solution to world-wide problems is not simply human, but requires the supernatural, transcendental message of the gospel (Bosch
What is left for humans when God is all-powerful? Interestingly, apocalyptic expects a definite response from humans. With an almost tangible urgency, the apocalyptic writers call on their listeners to take a side, to choose for life or death (Le Roux
Apocalyptic calls on human beings to follow God in changing the world, fighting for social justice, speaking truth to power – ‘forthtelling’ as Botha (
In addition, apocalyptic offers humans an ethic to survive, even prosper, despite the evil powers that govern the world. Morray-Jones typifies this ethic as ‘mantic’ or inspirational wisdom which can be distinguished from proverbial wisdom. In mantic wisdom, the apocalyptic hero, such as Daniel and his friends, offers an example for others to live by (Morray-Jones
Apocalyptic ethics also display a protreptic tendency, where believers are called to a radical commitment to their faith, to be willing to be distinct from the world – in contrast to a paraenetic ethic which suggests a good life within a community on an ongoing basis (Barton
The third characteristic of apocalyptic ethics is complete submission to God. All are called to submit – both the faithful and the evil princes of the world. Apocalyptic believers are, according to Barton (
It seems that an apocalyptic agenda for mission corroborates the understanding of mission as
The apocalyptic future is cosmic, universal and open. Whilst the Old Testament prophets also mentioned the nations and admitted them as part of God’s activity and future, they still envisaged the nations coming to Jerusalem. The apocalyptic writers severed the ties with Jerusalem; God’s saving and judging work would go out to all corners of the earth; world history is united (Von Rad
The universalism of apocalyptic can be seen in the letters of Paul. There is some debate amongst theologians whether Paul was universalist or rather particularist; Christopher Tuckett shows that wherever Paul seems to be most universalist, for example, Romans 5 or 1 Corinthians 15, he always employs apocalyptic language and images to make his case (Tuckett
Both the eschatological end and the new creation apply to all humans, and the new apocalyptic world even transcends creation by the vision that chaos is completely overcome by God and all are made new (Chester
Whilst Jewish apocalyptic arose in specific contexts and crises, the visions were not bound to specific places or times. In contrast, once again, with the prophets, the apocalyptic visions were ahistorical (Von Rad
This possibility was further established when Christian apocalyptic authors confessed that the kingdom of God had already appeared. The dualistic distinction between the aeons blurred, opening up to different appropriations of our time. Not everything in the world is bad, nor the entire world in chaos, or under the sway of the Evil One. ‘(A)mid much sin, chaos and suffering, Christians may expect to find signs of the work of God through his Spirit in the world (König
The symbolic, metaphorical style of the apocalyptic opened it up for universal use. The images could be found again and again and the recurring patterns – of a golden past, an evil, sinful present and a return to bliss – could be recognised where they manifested (Vanderkamm
In John Mbiti’s study on eschatology in the African context, he suggests that the apocalyptic view of time (which he explored looking at Revelations 21) may correct the linear, future, eschatology of the West, and better speak about the cyclical dimension of time espoused in Africa (cited in Ekem
The universal expectation further includes not only all peoples and ages, but also every part of life on earth, making it extremely meaningful and necessary in the present time. König (
The apocalyptic author is drawing attention to a radical renewal of creation by a Sovereign God who is not limited by time and space and whose rescue package embraces the entire ecology, human beings inclusive. (p. 14)
The apocalyptic gives us a new understanding of ourselves and our times. To begin with, it offers believers a new identity in difficult times. Le Roux records that the Jewish apocalyptic communities not only rebelled against mainstream society but also suffered from an identity crisis as a result of their distancing themselves from others. Apocalyptic provided a new group-identity built on the hope that God would appear and establish a new world (Le Roux
The apocalyptic vision was thus a source of comfort and consolation in the midst of sin, suffering and pessimism (Le Roux
Allen continues that deficiencies in Jewish and Christian religious systems gave rise to apocalyptic’s new religious language, for example, in the absence of prophetic voices, the apocalyptic countered the rabbinic legalism after the exile. Similarly, apocalyptic offers a new way to understand, or deal with, God in times of utter suffering, grief or oppression, in the ‘wilderness land’ where traditional belief does not make sense any more. Allen (
In the apocalyptic literature, God is not so good. God destroys, causes suffering, brings on plagues, and interrupts the heavens. But the reader of apocalyptic understands that such a devastating God does so in order that good may eventually triumph. Thus, one purpose of apocalyptic language is to reframe the ‘good’ God revered in weekly worship rituals into the picture of present suffering. (p. 393)
Ekem (
The apocalyptic hope speaks about our time. Moltmann argues that whilst most of our theology has been centred on the Greek philosophies concerning the proof of God, it is eschatology, and not theological proofs, that gives us hope in a crisis (cited in Allen
Totally without hope one cannot live. To live without hope is to cease to live. Hell is hopelessness. It is no accident that above the entrance to Dante’s hell is the inscription: ‘Leave behind all hope, you who enter here’. (Moltmann
Hanson (cited in Allen
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One of the embarrassments of the Christian faith is the delay of the parousia. Whilst Christians expected the immanent return of Christ, this has not yet happened. Apocalyptic’s immanent expectation has received extensive consideration and discussion (Bosch
In addition, when Christians adapted the Jewish apocalyptic, they saw the first coming and the resurrection of Christ as the decisive point in history. König (
This echoes the central message of the gospel as is also proclaimed in mission: ‘The time has come’, he said. ‘The kingdom of God has come near. Repent and believe the good news!’ (Mk1:15)
Botha (
As indicated earlier, over the past decades, missiology benefited greatly by giving serious attention to eschatology. It is my contention that missiology, in our time and circumstance, will similarly benefit from revisiting the apocalyptic writings of the Old Testament and New Testament. Apocalyptic may also be used to develop a ‘theology of hope’ as well as a ‘missiology of hope’ – something that the church and mission are in dire need of. The apocalyptic visions provide the church with new ways of understanding herself and offer an original and appropriate way to witness God in our present apocalypse.
In attempting this, we, South Africans, will find ourselves in the company of the great African theologian, Bishop Quodvultdeus of Carthage, who in the 5th century turned to apocalyptic theology when suffering at the hands of Vandals (Gould
Miller (
Suddenly the Thing happened, and, as everybody knows, it cannot be described in words. The Bible phrase, ‘I saw the heavens open’ seems as good as any if not taken literally. I remember saying to myself, in awe and rapture, ‘So it’s like this: now I know what heaven is like, now I know what they mean in church’. (p. 10)
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
I declare that I am the sole author of this research article.
This article followed all ethical standards for a research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.
Warren seems to distinguish between apocalyptic, which he calls ‘Second Adventism’, that predicts that the catastrophic end of the world is at hand, and eschatology or his ‘theology of hope’ as a Christian response to it (Meiring
Mantic wisdom is inspirational wisdom which can be distinguished from proverbial wisdom (Morray-Jones