Previous research conducted on the topic of workplace spirituality seems to indicate that workers often associate spirituality in the workplace with their personal religious orientations. This article, however, presents an alternative approach to the understanding of workplace spirituality. In this article, the contemporary hospitality industry is presented as two metaphorical stage worlds, a front-stage world and a back-stage world, where actors perform the play of hospitality. Each of these worlds observes an ultimate concern: the workers of the front-stage world observe an ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction, whereas the workers of the back-stage world observe an ultimate concern of profit. Because these two worlds have opposing ultimate concerns, the current spirituality of the contemporary hospitality industry is one of dissonance and unhappiness. However, as this article will show, there is a possibility for an alternative spirituality – a spirituality of hope and endless possibilities. This spirituality will come to be through the life-giving words of the entire community. The uniqueness of the front-stage world and the back-stage world lies in their respective constructions. Some of the dominant elements that affect each of these worlds are discussed in this article. It will also be shown that the language of religion plays a role in the construction of reality. Understanding these elements is important, for only when hospitality workers recognise the elements that influence the construction of the front-stage world and the back-stage world will they be able to deconstruct and reconstruct these two worlds.
Since the beginning of the new millennium, the concept of workplace spirituality has received a great deal of attention in several research papers (Bell & Taylor
Numerous scholars argue that workplace spirituality might play an imperative role in the deeper and more meaningful understanding of employee and corporate reality (Dreyer & Dreyer
Some understand workplace spirituality as the fusion of ‘personal and cultural values permeating all levels of organisational life – the organisation, the team and the individual’ (Gotsis & Kortezi
Spirituality in the workplace is an experience of interconnectedness and trust among those involved in a work process, engendered by individual good-will; leading to the collective creation of a motivational organisational culture, epitomised by reciprocity and solidarity; and resulting in enhanced overall performance, which is ultimately translated in lasting organisational excellence. (p. 24)
Garcia-Zamor (
There are also those who understand workplace spirituality as the:
individual’s perception of spiritual values present in the organisational environment, and the extent to which the work, leadership, policies, business practices and culture of the organisation fulfill the employee’s spiritual needs and values. (Tombaugh, Mayfield & Durand
But what determines spiritual needs and values in the workplace? In what follows, these concepts are explored from the perspectives of the front-stage and the back-stage worlds of the contemporary hospitality setting. It will be shown that workplace spirituality is not how workers incorporate their respective personal religious principles in the workplace, but rather how religion influences the construction of different working environments, hence creating different workplace spiritualities or different ultimate concerns.
It is a common practise for hospitality workers to refer to the hotel industry as a metaphorical stage where they, the ‘actors’, partake in the daily ‘play’ of hospitality. However, like any performance arena there is a front-stage and a back-stage. The workers of these two opposing stage worlds are tasked with very different duties, resulting in conflicting ultimate concerns.
All guest interaction takes place in the front-stage world – a world that observes an ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction. The workers of the front-stage world typically include porters, receptionists, restaurant and bar personnel, housekeeping staff, maintenance staff and members of security.
Part of the duties of the back-stage world is to establish rules that the workers of the front-stage world need to respect in the observance of their ultimate concern, that is, unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction. Thus, although it is required of front-stage workers to show
Absolute hospitality requires that I open up my home and that I give not only to the foreigner (provided with a family name, with the social status of being a foreigner, etc.), but to the absolute, unknown, anonymous other, and that I
Another rule that front-stage workers are expected to honour is always to show hospitality with a smile. However, in the light of the current spirituality of hospitality, a spirituality of dissonance and unhappiness, authentic kindness is not always possible. This spirituality poses tremendous emotional challenges for front-stage workers. As a result, front-stage workers put on ‘happy-face masks’ to create a façade of authentic happiness. Rafaeli and Sutton (
Adding to the challenges that the front-stage workers face is shift work and the number of hours worked, factors that have a significant effect on the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of employees (Brymer, Perrewe & Johns
It could be argued that the hospitality industry is not the only industry that poses these challenges for workers, yet, as this study will show, the workers of the front-stage world find it difficult to observe their ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction.
In an attempt to understand why hospitality employees find the front-stage world so emotionally challenging, it might be insightful to explore the elements that may affect the construction of this world. Meanings are understood through the conversations of numerous groups of people (Freedman & Combs
In what follows, some examples of biblical, Hellenistic and cultural stories of hospitality will be discussed in an attempt to show how these stories of old influence the construction of the contemporary front-stage world.
Meylahn (
… the sacred texts of the Judaic-Christian tradition offer not only an understanding of the wholly otherness of God, but also form the basis of our understanding and perception of humanity (anthropology), the world and ourselves (personhood/identity). (p. 1)
Thus, the way many people try to understand the world around them, and the role they play in it, is influenced by their association with biblical narratives and traditions.
In biblical times, hospitality was seen as a religious obligation, or, as Van Eck (
In both the narratives of Genesis 19 and Judges 19, the hosts are required to show unconditional hospitality to their guests while under tremendous pressure. Although the hosts in these biblical stories faced the possibility of physical danger, contemporary hospitality workers are more likely to be challenged emotionally. It is during such challenging times that hospitality workers put on ‘happy-face masks’ to create an impression of authentic kindness. The reason for this is that as in Judeo-Christian hospitality, where it was required of the host to change the status of the visitor from stranger to guest (Malina & Rohrbaugh
Judeo-Christian hospitality was associated with strong ethical traditions, a concept that is still valued in contemporary hospitality. In antiquity, guests were expected to show respect to hosts and their households. It was also expected of guests to reciprocate the kindness of their hosts, typically by presenting them with gifts (Malina & Rohrbaugh
Gifts beg counter-gifts, and fulfil at one and the same time a number of purposes: they repay past services, incur new obligations, and act as continuous reminders of the validity of the bond. Non-reciprocation is in this context frequently interpreted as relapse into hostility. (p. 169)
In the current era, guests usually respond to hospitality with financial reciprocation. This is where the back-stage world comes into play. One of the duties of the back-stage workers is to establish the cost at which hospitality can be shown to guests. Thus, the front-stage world, which observes an ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction, is controlled by the back-stage world, a world that observes an ultimate concern of profit.
In a way that is similar to the front-stage world’s being controlled by the back-stage world, so too was Jesus controlled by the back-stage world of his time, a world that prohibited showing kindness to outsiders and castaways. Two instances where Jesus was confronted with the laws of the back-stage world of his time are the banquet in Levi’s house (Mt 9:9–13; Mk 2:13–17; Lk 5:27–32) and the meal at Zacchaeus’ house (Lk 19:1–10). Although it was Jesus’ intention to show unconditional hospitality to all people, not everybody appreciated his ‘rebellious’ deeds. The Pharisees and scribes who ruled the back-stage world of antiquity saw Jesus’ actions as a blasphemy against the traditions of the time (Mt 9:11; Mk 2:16; Lk 5:30). Considering the challenges that Jesus faced, it can perhaps be said that hospitality in the first century was also divided in a front-stage world, which observed an ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction, and a back-stage world, in which the Pharisees and scribes determined the rules of the front-stage world.
As in the case of the stories of contemporary hospitality employees, Jesus’ narrative also exposed the dominant myth of the time, that is, a myth of conditional hospitality. Because of Jesus’ disrespect to this dominant myth, he had to be crucified. However, the crucifixion of Jesus provides a frame of reference for contemporary hospitality workers because Jesus’ resurrection announces a new life of ‘impossible possibilities there where the power of the dominating myth is broken’ (Meylahn
Although biblical narratives might play an important role in how hospitality workers understand the front-stage world, Hellenic culture and mythology should also be considered, as these stories too might influence the construction of the front-stage world.
Perhaps one of the most renowned narratives of hospitality in Greek mythology is Homer’s
In ancient Greece, a stranger could either be a mortal human or a disguised godly being and could either be friendly or hostile (O’Gorman
In Greek mythology, the god Zeus presided over hospitality, and Jupiter was seen as the guardian of Roman hospitality laws (O’Gorman
The plot of this mythological story clearly resonates with the biblical narrative of Genesis 19. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, not all cultures associate with biblical and Hellenic stories of hospitality. Here, people often refer to the concept of
Many African tribal societies that reside below the Sahara refer to hospitality as
The interdependency of
A person is a person through other persons. I would not know how to be a human being at all except (that) I learned this from other human beings. We are made for a delicate network of relationships, of interdependence. We are meant to complement each other. All kinds of things go horribly wrong when we break that fundamental Law of our being. Not even the most powerful nation can be completely self-sufficient. (p. 369)
Although some hospitality workers might relate to biblical and mythological narratives of hospitality, others might identify with the interconnectedness associated with
In this section, several influences were discussed that might affect the way in which hospitality workers understand the front-stage world, a world that observes an ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction. In a way that is similar to how these elements influence the construction of the front-stage world, there are also elements that influence the understanding of the back-stage world, a world that observes an ultimate concern of profit.
Workers who work in the back-stage world typically include members of executive management and other senior administrative personnel such as accountants and marketing managers. The collective purpose of these workers is mainly to establish corporate policies and to strategise financial growth. It is very seldom that the back-stage workers interact with guests.
Earlier it was argued that biblical and mythological narratives, as well as the concept of
Religion is one of the strongest forms of legitimation because if God says something, it should be considered as an ultimate truth. However, religion does not only involve God.
Religion can be understood as that which a community views as an ultimate concern. Although different communities might observe different ultimate concerns, all religions are instructive, and they each have a notion of an absolute (Durkheim
Durkheim believed that society needed some religious system of joining beliefs for ‘no society can exist that does not feel the need at regular intervals to sustain and reaffirm the collective feelings and ideas that constitute its unity and personality’ (Durkheim
Although moral authority originates from the social groups in which people live, the group in itself controls the individual members (Durkheim
Now we are able to check on the extent to which the moral order is founded in the nature of things – that is in the nature of society – which is to say to what extent it is what it ought to be. In the degree that we see it as such, we can freely conform to it … Thus, on condition of having adequate knowledge of moral precepts, of their causes and of their functions, we are in a position to conform to them, but consciously and knowing why. Such conformity has nothing of constraint about it. (p. 117)
Durkheim argues that if people understand the purpose of moral obligation, they would willingly obey. A guaranteed way to establish such obedience is to urge the education system to teach modern secular morality in schools. By doing so, children will understand their roles and responsibilities in society (Bratton & Denham
Although Durkheim emphasises the role of religion as it relates to social cohesion, Weber focusses on the ‘economic ethics’ found in the major world religions and societies (Bratton & Denham
The task before us is to indicate the significance of ascetic rationalism for the content of the
In a nutshell, Weber proposes a new work ethic that is focussed on financial prosperity. Thus, work becomes a way of demonstrating godliness, a notion that eventually gave rise to the rationalisation of capitalism.
Weber was significantly influenced by Benjamin Franklin’s work, which drew a parallel between religiosity and entrepreneurship. Weber saw Franklin’s theory as the ideal-type ‘spirit’ of capitalism (Weber
Remember,
Franklin’s mantra clearly emphasises the duty of individuals to accumulate as much wealth as possible. For Franklin, this ‘spirit’ reaches further than just ‘egocentric maxims’ (Weber
The ‘
Those who chose to follow this belief were of the opinion that material wealth was the manifestation of God’s grace. This belief justified the aspiration to material achievement. Subsequently, Protestant preaching accentuated that followers had (Weber
a duty to
This philosophy, argues Weber (
As time went by, the transcendental nature of work was replaced with financial greed (Lips-Wiersma, Lund Dean & Fornaciari
In an attempt to determine to what extent the contemporary hospitality industry is influenced by the elements discussed above that might construct the front-stage world and the back-stage world, four hospitality employees, referred to as co-researchers, were invited to participate in this postfoundational
This empirical study relied on the method of narrative inquiry. Because people are all born into stories, their social and historical frameworks continuously invite them to reflect on narratives regarding specific traditions and events (Freedman & Combs
The purpose of narrative inquiry is to attempt to co-construct meanings through the process of ‘storying and re-storying in order to reveal multidimensional meanings and present an authentic and compelling rendering of the data’ (Leavy
For Meylahn (
First layer narratives, explains Meylahn (
Narratives need to be interpreted, and to do so, it is important to place stories in their specific narrative settings (Meylahn
During the interview process, the co-researchers told dominant stories about the front-stage world and the back-stage world. The dominant stories of the front-stage world (which observes an ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction) spoke of the desire for and the importance of respect, understanding, gratitude and integrity. The dominant stories of the back-stage world (which observes an ultimate concern of profit) told of being bullied into working extra hours and of cost saving, disrespect, subordination, belittlement and unfairness.
The dominant stories of the front-stage and back-stage worlds stand in direct contrast to each other. The reason for this difference, explains Meylahn (
In addition to the dominant stories, there are also shadow stories. According to the dominant stories, shadow stories should not exist, but they do (Meylahn
In this regard, Meylahn (
In this study, the hospitality industry is seen as a stage where actors perform their daily routines. This metaphorical reference to the hospitality industry inspired the researcher to interpret the narratives of the co-researchers in a creative way. Through the collaboration with actors and a production team, I produced a film,
I could definitely relate to the emotions of the characters and I feel that anyone who has been in the industry, or still is, would be able to relate to the characters and their situations. In my opinion, ‘the mask’ is always on and at times one forgets to take it off, or worse, it becomes a permanent facial feature. And that is when it starts to affect one’s private life. (Alex, male, mid-forties, senior management)
I could definitely relate to the character of the concierge, having worked as one. The part of coming home and having those few moments with your wife and child brought back painful memories. The one picture that really hit hard was the closing moments of the film with the washed, but stained, shirt hanging ready for the next day’s wear. It re-enforced the point that you may try and wash out the effects of the emotional trauma you experience, but it will leave a lasting scar (stain). (David, male, mid-forties, senior management)
The video portrayed everything perfectly. It has been a source of motivation for me as a manager and employee at the same time. (Cindy, female, early thirties, middle-management)
I must admit, the first time I watched the video it seemed a bit strange, almost like looking in a mirror but not really recognising what you are seeing. The second time it became so clear that the emotions portrayed in the film was exactly how it was in hospitality. Continuously ensuring that others’ needs are put before your own and that your loved ones have to accept second best. (John, male, late twenties, junior management)
Many of the themes that are portrayed in the film have also been pinpointed by previous research, which indicates that occupational stress affects the private lives of employees, causing problems in marriages, friendships and communities (Kahn & Byosiere
To incorporate art in research does not imply an ultimate interpretation but rather creates the possibility of alternative interpretations. Art also crosses language barriers. Leavy (
In this step, from the cracks in the dominant common language of the community, the narratives of the co-researchers are discerned as ultimate myths or beliefs (Meylahn
During this movement, it is the responsibility of the practical theologian to identify the various divinities that the co-researchers consider as their absolute concerns. The engagement with these ultimate myths or ‘gods of the contexts’ is crucial to understand the lived religions of the co-researchers (Meylahn
This movement begins with the movement of discernment (Meylahn
It is important that the story of Christ should be declared in the context of the cracks that exist in the stories of the dominant myth and that the resurrection should be seen as the prospect of new possibilities previously impossible under the dominant myth (Meylahn
During this dance movement, new life-giving words come into being, encouraged by the association with the Triune God (Meylahn
Besides the dominant stories and the shadow stories, the co-researchers also discussed certain themes. These included incidents of bullying, subordination and disrespect. If the contemporary hospitality industry is interested in resolving the differences that currently exist between the front-stage world and the back-stage world, it is important to address matters that might jeopardise the process of reconciliation.
Leadership style in the hospitality industry is a matter of tremendous importance because not only is the hospitality industry one of the fastest developing industries in the 21st century (Holjevac
‘status-blind’ interpersonal hostility that is deliberate, repeated and sufficiently severe as to harm the targeted person’s health or economic status. Further, it is driven by perpetrators’ need to control another individual, often undermining legitimate business interests in the process. (p. 1)
In a study conducted by Azulay, Park and Wickham (quoted in Crampton & Hodge
Employees waste time worrying about the uncivil incident or future interactions with the instigators, and try to avoid the instigators.
Employees become less committed.
Employees do not involve themselves in tasks beyond the borders of their job specification and expend less effort to meet their responsibilities.
Employees are less willing to help others, and they reduce their contribution to the organisation.
According to Clark
There are, nevertheless, managers who rely on fear to control employees. According to Fry (
Although acts of mistreatment might have a devastating effect on employees, transformational leadership can ‘improve employee dedications, social behavior, role clarity, and satisfaction, while also reducing the effects of job stress and burnout’ (Clark
Hospitality can be seen as a colourful work of art, a multidimensional masterpiece painted on the canvas of human history and framed by religious, mythological, social and traditional principles. However, how this painting is interpreted depends on the stories, fables and traditions that make up the social construction of people’s knowledge, and the significance this construction has for them within this social–cultural–religious context.
This article has argued that the contemporary hospitality industry consists of two worlds, namely a front-stage world and a back-stage world. Those who work in the front-stage world observe an ultimate concern of unconditional hospitality and guest satisfaction, whereas the workers of the back-stage world observe an ultimate concern of profit. The conflict that exists between these two worlds is the cause of the current spirituality in the contemporary hospitality industry: a spirituality of dissonance and unhappiness.
However, this spirituality can be altered. If the entire community, both the front-stage world and the back-stage world, can engage in dialogue, the narratives of the community will auto-deconstruct the ultimate myths. This ‘crucifixion’ of the ultimate myths will lead to the resurrection of a new spirituality: a spirituality of hope and grace. This new spirituality will arise through the life-giving words of the community.
This new spirituality will be one of impossible possibilities. However, it will not be the ultimate spirituality because it will develop its own new dominant stories in time, and therefore, through the cracks in these new stories, shadow stories will again appear that will challenge the dominant myth of the new community. Thus, this new spirituality will be ever-changing, always depending on the life-giving words of the community to keep it alive.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
C.M. is the author of the article. J-A.M. was the supervisor during the PhD studies of C.M.
Swinton and Mowat (2006:452) explain postfoundationalism as follows: ‘… all human practices are historically grounded and inherently value-laden. Practices such as prayer, hospitality and friendship contain their own particular theological meanings, social and theological histories, implicit and explicit norms and moral expectations. The ways in which we practice and the forms of practice in which we participate are therefore filled with deep meaning, purpose and direction. Put slightly differently, the forms of practice that we participate in are theory-laden’. Thus, the way people make sense of the world around them is influenced by history, religion and culture.
The names of the co-researchers are aliases.
All the co-researchers held managerial positions in the front-stage world. Their experiences were not based only on their current employment, but on their collective experiences throughout their careers as hoteliers.